American sign language егэ ответы

“The dark ages for Deaf education in America” began in

1)  1817.

2)  1880.

3)  1920.

4)  1960.

American Sign Language

Hearing loss is a partial or total inability to hear. It affects about a billion people on earth. Around a hundred million of these are completely deaf and require special ways of communicating. One of these ways is sign language. Sign language is a language that uses hand gestures that are modified by facial expressions. Hand gestures are mainly used for words, while most grammar comes from facial expressions. American Sign Language or ASL is a language used by the Deaf community in the USA.

ASL is surrounded by a lot of myths and misconceptions. One of the most common myths is that it is simply a visual code for English and not a real language. In fact, ASL and English are two completely separate languages, each with their own grammar. Although ASL does sometimes use fingerspelling, when each letter of a word is spelled out by a particular gesture, it is mostly used for names. Another popular misconception is that ASL is a universal language understood by all signers in the world. Actually, there are hundreds of sign languages, all naturally developed by the Deaf communities in different countries.

It is interesting that ASL is specific to the USA, while other Englishspeaking countries, such as the UK or Australia have their own sign languages. In a way, due to its history, ASL is closer to French Sign Language than it is to British Sign Language.

The origins of ASL can be traced back to a couple of influences. In the 1600s the first regional sign languages naturally developed in the American colonies. They appeared in places like Martha’s Vineyard, where a large number of deaf people happened to be part of the community. Another major influence was French Sign Language. In 1817 Laurent Clerc, a deaf teacher from France, and Thomas Gallaudet, a hearing American educator, founded the first American school for the deaf in Hartford, Connecticut. The blending of regional sign language and French Sign Language formed the basis of ASL today.

In the 19th century ASL flourished through Deaf schools, which had great success utilizing a combination of ASL and written English. However, a change in Deaf education occurred in 1880 that is still affecting the Deaf community today. In the 2nd International Congress on Deaf Education that met in Milan and where no deaf people were allowed to participate in the discussion of sign language, the majority voted in favor of oral education for all deaf children. This meant teaching them to read lips and imitate speech. It was believed that the exaggerated facial expressions, which include movements of eyes, eyebrows, mouth, tongue and lips and are part of any sign language, were unpleasant to hearing people and could even horrify them. In addition, sign languages were thought to have no grammar.

In the following 40 years over 80% of the Deaf schools in the USA, as well as in many other countries, switched to an oral method of instruction. This became known as “the dark ages for Deaf education in America”. The number of deaf teachers in the schools dropped significantly, as they were considered inferior, unable to teach the children speech. Students were not allowed to use ASL during the lessons. Fortunately, the children in these schools still used ASL between and after classes to exchange information and just talk to each other. The effectiveness of the oral approach remained a contentious issue for the next century and a half, with a resurgence of ASL in the 1960s.

Task 1 Прочитайте текст и заполните пропуски A–F частями предложений, обозначенными цифрами 1–7. Одна из частей в списке 1–7 лишняя. Занесите цифру, обозначающую соответствующую часть предложения, в таблицу.

Fire Crews Hunt Escaped Hamster

Eight firefighters have been called in to help find an escaped hamster. Two crews used a chocolate-covered camera and a vacuum cleaner A ____ , called Fudgie, at the home of a six-year-old girl in Dunbar, Scotland.

The girl’s mother said: ‘We came down for breakfast and discovered Fudgie had opened the top lid of her cage and had made her way into the kitchen and we think she has gone В ____ .’

The fire crews spent five hours trying to recover the pet after it ran down a hole in the kitchen floor. But, the hamster still refused С ____ .

In the search for Fudgie, the firefighters took the family cooker and gas pipes apart. They also dropped a mini-camera coated with chocolate under the floorboards. They then hoped to take out the hamster using a vacuum cleaner. Despite all their efforts, they failed to find Fudgie.

In the end, the firefighters put another camera down the hole D ____ , connected to the screen of the family home computer, to see if Fudgie appeared. Besides, the girl and her parents regularly dropped food E ____ .

At last, after eight days the hamster returned to her cage safe and sound. She crawled from the hole in the kitchen floor early in the morning. It was the girl’s father who first found Fudgie F ____ .

The girl said that day it was like Christmas morning for her. Her parents added that they too felt extremely happy when Fudgie had finally returned.

1. through a small hole in the floor

2. through the hole for the hamster

3. and locked the runaway hamster

4. to come out of the hole

5. to look after the pet

6. to try and locate the missing hamster

7. and left it under the floorboards

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
6	1	4	7	2	3

Task 2

Speed of eating is ‘key to obesity’

If you eat very quickly, it may be enough to increase your risk of being overweight, research suggests.

Osaka University scientists looked at the eating habits of 3,000 people. Just about half of them told researchers that they A ______ . Compared with those who did not eat quickly, fast-eating men were 84% more likely to be overweight, and women were 100% more likely to В ______ .

Japanese scientists said that there were a number of reasons why eating fast С ______ . They said it could prevent the work of a signalling system which tells your brain to stop eating because your stomach is full. They said: ‘If you eat quickly you basically fill your stomach before the system has a chance to react, so you D _____ .

The researchers also explained that a mechanism that helps make us fat today, developed with evolution and helped people get more food in the periods when they were short of it. The scientists added that the habit of eating fast could be received from one’s parents genes or E ______ .

They said that, if possible, children should be taught to F ______ , and allowed to stop when they felt full up at mealtimes. ‘The advice of our grandmothers about chewing everything 20 times might be true — if you take a bit more time eating, it could have a positive influence on your weight.

1. just overfill your stomach

2. could be bad for your weight

3. have a habit of eating quickly

4. linked to obesity

5. eat as slowly as possible

6. put on weight

7. learned at a very early age

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
3	6	2	1	7	5

Task 3

Hi-Tech Brings Families Together 

Technology is helping families stay in touch like never before, says a report carried out in the US.

Instead of driving people apart, mobile phones and the Internet are A ____ . The research looked at the differences in technology use between families with children and single adults. It found that traditional families have more hi-tech gadgets in their home В ____ . Several mobile phones were found in 89% of families and 66% had a high-speed Internet connection. The research also found that 58% of families have more С ____ .

Many people use their mobile phone to keep in touch and communicate with parents and children. Seventy percent of couples, D ____ , use it every day to chat or say hello. In addition, it was found that 42% of parents contact their children via their mobile every day.

The growing use of mobile phones, computers and the Internet means that families no longer gather round the TV to spend time together. 25% of those who took part in the report said they now spend less time E ____ . Only 58% of 18—29 year olds said they watched TV every day. Instead the research found that 52% of Internet users who live with their families go online F ____ several times a week and 51% of parents browse the web with their children.

Some analysts have worried that new technologies hurt families, but we see that technology allows for new kinds of connectedness built around cell phones and the Internet/ said the report.

1. than any other group

2. watching television

3. in the company of someone else

4. than two computers in the home

5. communicated with their families

6. helping them communicate

7. owning a mobile

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
6	1	4	7	2	3

Task 4

The Power of ‘Hello’ 

I work at a company where there are hundreds of employees. I know most of them and almost all of them know me. It is all based on one simple principle: I believe every single person deserves to be acknowledged, A ______ .

When I was about 10 years old, I was walking down the street with my mother. She stopped to speak to Mr. Lee. I knew I could see Mr. Lee any time around the neighborhood, В ______ .

After we passed Mr. Lee, my mother said something that has stuck with me from that day until now. She said, ‘You let that be the last time you ever walk by somebody and not open up your mouth to speak, because even a dog can wag its tail С______ . That phrase sounds simple, but it has been a guidepost for me and the foundation of who I am. I started to see that when I spoke to someone, they spoke back. And that felt good. It is not just something I believe in — D ______ . I believe that every person deserves to feel someone acknowledges their presence, no matter how unimportant they may be.

At work, I always used to say ‘hello’ to the founder of the company and ask him how our business was doing. But I was also speaking to the people in the cafe, and asked how their children were doing. I remembered after a few years of passing by the founder, I had the courage to ask him for a meeting. We had a great talk.

At a certain point, I asked him E ______ . He said, ‘If you want to, you can get all the way to this seat.’ I have become vice president, but that has not changed the way I approach people. I speak to everyone I see, no matter where I am. I have learned that speaking to people creates a pathway into their world, F ______ .

1. it has become a way of life.

2. when it passes you on the street.

3. when you see him and talk to him.

4. and it lets them come into mine, too.

5. so I did not pay any attention to him.

6. however small or simple the greeting is.

7. how far he thought I could go in his company.

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
6	5	2	1	7	4

Task 5

Friendship and Love

 A strong friendship takes a significant amount of time to develop. It will not just magically mature overnight. A friendship involves committing oneself to help another person A ______ . I believe that, nothing can replace a true friend, not material objects, or money, and definitely not a boy.

I met this guy a couple summers ago who I ended up spending almost all of my free time with. His parents did not approve of our dating because of our age difference, В ______ . He had told me the day we met that he had joined the air force and would leave for overseas that coming October. After three months had past, the time came when he had to leave. This left me feeling completely alone.

I turned to my friends for support, but to my surprise, С ______ . I had spent so much time with this guy and so little time with them, that they did not feel sorry for me when he left. For so long they had become the only constant in my life, and I had taken them for granted over something D ______ .

When my boyfriend came back, our relationship changed. I tried to fix all the aspects in my life that had gone so wrong in the previous six months.

This experience taught me that true friendships will only survive if one puts forth effort to make them last. Keeping friends close will guarantee that E ______ . When a relationship falls apart, a friend will always do everything in their power to make everything less painful. As for me, I try to keep my friends as close as I can. I know they will always support me in whatever I do, and to them, I F ______ .

1. but we did anyway.

2. whenever a need arises.

3. they did not really care.

4. whenever they need your help.

5. could not guarantee would even last.

6. am eternally grateful for a second chance.

7. someone will always have a shoulder to cry on.

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
2	1	3	5	7	6

Task 6

Mobile phones

 On New Year’s Day, 1985, Michael Harrison phoned his father, Sir Ernest, to wish him a happy new year. Sir Ernest was chairman of Racal Electronics, the owner of Vodafone, A ______ .

At the time, mobile phones weighed almost a kilogram, cost several thousand pounds and provided only 20 minutes talktime. The networks themselves were small; Vodafone had just a dozen masts covering London. Nobody had any idea of the huge potential of wireless communication and the dramatic impact В ______ .

Hardly anyone believed there would come a day when mobile phones were so popular С ______ .But in 1999 one mobile phone was sold in the UK every four seconds, and by 2004 there were more mobile phones in the UK than people. The boom was a result of increased competition which pushed prices lower and created innovations in the way that mobiles were sold.

When the government introduced more competition, companies started cutting prices to attract more customers. Cellnet, for example, changed its prices, D ______ . It also introduced local call tariffs.

The way that handsets themselves were marketed was also changing and it was Finland’s Nokia who made E ______ . In the late 1990s Nokia realized that the mobile phone was a fashion item: so it offered interchangeable covers which allowed you to customize and personalize your handset.

The mobile phone industry has spent the later part of the past decade reducing its monthly charge F ______ , which has culminated in the fight between the iPhone and a succession of touch screen rivals.

1. trying to persuade people to do more with their phones than just call and text

2. that there would be more phones in the UK than there are people

3. and relying instead on actual call charges

4. that mobile phones would have over the next quarter century

5. the leap from phones as technology to phones as fashion items

6. and his son was making the first-ever mobile phone call in the UK

7. the move to digital technology, connecting machines to wireless networks

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
6	4	2	1	5	3

Task 7

London Zoo

 London Zoo is one of the most important zoos in the world. There are over 12,000 animals at London Zoo and A ______ ! Its main concern is to breed threatened animals in captivity. This means we might be able to restock the wild, should disaster ever befall the wild population.

Partula Snail, Red Crowned Crane, Arabian Oryx, Golden Lion Tamarin, Persian Leopard, Asiatic Lion and Sumatran Tiger are just some of the species London Zoo is helping to save.

That is why it is so important that we fight to preserve the habitats that these animals live in, as well as eliminate other dangers В ______ . But we aim to make your day at London Zoo a fun and memorable time, С ______ .

In the Ambika Paul Children’s Zoo, for instance, youngsters can learn a new love and appreciation for animals D ______ . They can also learn how to care for favourite pets in the Pet Care Centre.

Then there are numerous special Highlight events E ______ unforgettable pony rides to feeding times and spectacular animal displays. You will get to meet keepers and ask them what you are interested in about the animals they care for, F ______ .

Whatever you decide, you will have a great day. We have left no stone unturned to make sure you do!

1. such as hunting exotic animals and selling furs

2. as well as the ins and outs of being a keeper at London Zoo

3. which take place every day, from

4. because they see and touch them close up 

5. despite the serious side to our work

6. which demand much time and effort

7. that is not counting every ant in the colony

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
7	1	5	4	3	2

Task 8

‘Second Stonehenge’ discovered near original

 Archaeologists have discovered evidence of what they believe was a second Stonehenge located a little more than a mile away from the world-famous prehistoric monument.

The new find on the west bank of the river Avon has been called «Bluestonehenge», after the colour of the 25 Welsh stones of A______.

Excavations at the site have suggested there was once a stone circle 10 metres in diameter and surrounded by a henge — a ditch with an external bank, according to the project director, Professor Mike Parker Pearson, of the University of Sheffield.

The stones at the site were removed thousands of years ago but the sizes of the holes in B ______ indicate that this was a circle of bluestones, brought from the Preseli mountains of Wales, 150 miles away.

The standing stones marked the end of the avenue C _____, a 1¾-mile long processional route constructed at the end of the Stone Age. The outer henge around the stones was built about 2400BC but arrowheads found in the stone circle indicate the stones were put up as much as 500 years earlier.

Parker Pearson said his team was waiting for results of radiocarbon dating D _____ whether stones currently in the inner circle of Stonehenge were originally located at the other riverside construction.

Pearson said: «The big, big question is when these stones were erected and when they were removed — and when we get the dating evidence we can answer both those questions.»

He added: «We speculated in the past E ______ at the end of the avenue near the river. But we were completely unprepared to discover that there was an entire stone circle. Another team member, Professor Julian Thomas, said the discovery indicated F______was central to the religious lives of the people who built Stonehenge. «Old theories about Stonehenge that do not explain the evident significance of the river will have to be rethought,» he said. Dr Josh Pollard, project co-director from the University of Bristol, described the discovery as «incredible».

1. which could reveal

2. which they stood

3. which it was once made up

4. that this stretch of the river Avon

5. that there might have been something

6. that it should be considered as integral part

7. that leads from the river Avon to Stonehenge

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
3	2	7	1	5	4

Task 9

Australia

 Australia was the last great landmass to be discovered by the Europeans. The continent they eventually discovered had already been inhabited for tens of thousands of years.

Australia is an island continent A _____ is the result of gradual changes wrought over millions of years.

B ____, Australia is one of the most stable land masses, and for about 100 million years has been free of the forces that have given rise to huge mountain ranges elsewhere.

From the east coast a narrow, fertile strip merges into the greatly eroded Great Dividing Range, C ____.

The mountains are merely reminders of the mighty range, D ____. Only in the section straddling the New South Wales border with Victoria and in Tasmania, are they high enough to have winter snow.

West of the range of the country becomes increasingly flat and dry. The endless flatness is broken only by salt lakes, occasional mysterious protuberances and some mountains E ____. In places the scant vegetation is sufficient to allow some grazing. However, much of the Australian outback is a barren land of harsh stone deserts and dry lakes.

The extreme north of Australia, the Top End, is a tropical area within the monsoon belt. F ____, it comes in more or less one short, sharp burst. This has prevented the Top End from becoming seriously productive area.

1. that once stood here

2. that is almost continent long

3. whose property is situated to the north of Tasmania

4. whose landscape — much of bleak and inhospitable

5. whose beauty reminds of the MacDonald Ranges

6. Although its annual rainfall looks adequate on paper

7. Although there is still seismic activity in the eastern highland area

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
4	7	2	1	5	6

Task 10

Scotland Yard

 Scotland Yard is the headquarters of the Metropolitan Police in London. To most people, its name immediately brings to mind the picture of a detective — cool, efficient, ready to track down any criminal, or a helmeted police constable — A____ and trusty helper of every traveller from overseas.

Scotland Yard is situated on the Thames Embankment close to the Houses of Parliament and the familiar clock tower of Big Ben, and its jurisdiction extends over 740 square miles with the exception of the ancient City of London, B____.

One of the most successful developments in Scotland Yard’s crime detection and emergency service has been the “999 system”. On receipt of a call the 999 Room operator ascertains by electronic device the position of the nearest available police car, C ____. Almost instantly a message is also sent by teleprinter to the police station concerned so that within seconds of a call for assistance being received, a police car is on its way to the scene. An old-established section of the Metropolitan police is the Mounted Branch, with its strength of about 200 horses stabled at strategic points. These horses are particularly suited to ceremonial occasions, D ____.

An interesting branch of Scotland Yard is the branch of Police Dogs, first used as an experiment in 1939. Now these dogs are an important part of the Force. One dog, for example, can search a warehouse in ten minutes, E ____.

There is also the River Police, or Thames Division, which deals with all crimes occurring within its river boundaries.

There are two other departments of Scotland Yard – the Witness Room (known as the Rogues’ Gallery) where a photographic record of known and suspected criminals is kept, and the Museum, F ____.

1. which is contacted by radio

2. that familiar figure of the London scene

3. for they are accustomed to military bands

4. which possesses its own separate police force

5. which contains murder relics and forgery exhibits

6. that this policeman will bring the criminal to justice

7. whereas the same search would take six men an hour

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
2	4	1	3	7	5

Task 11

Harry Potter course for university students 

Students of Durham University are being given the chance to sign up to what is thought to be the UK’s first course focusing on the world of Harry Potter. Although every English-speaking person in the world knows about Harry Potter books and films, few have thought of using them as a guide to … modern life.

The Durham University module uses the works of JK Rowling A ______ modern society. “Harry Potter and the Age of Illusion” will be available for study next year. So far about 80 undergraduates have signed В ______ a BA degree in Education Studies. Future educationalists will analyse JK Rowling’s fanfiction from various points of view.

A university spokesman said: “This module places the Harry Potter novels in a wider social and cultural context.” He added that a number of themes would be explored, С ______ the classroom, bullying, friendship and solidarity and the ideals of and good citizenship.

The module was created by the head of the Department of Education at Durham University. He said the idea for the new module had appeared in response D ______ body: “It seeks to place the series in its wider social and cultural context and will explore some fundamental issues E ______ . You just need to read the academic writing which started F ______ that Harry Potter is worthy of serious study.”

1. up for the optional module, part of

2. to emerge four or five years ago to see

3. to examine prejudice, citizenship and bullying in

4. such as the response of the writer

5. including the world of rituals, prejudice and intolerance in

6. to growing demand from the student

7. such as the moral universe of the school

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
3	1	5	6	7	2

Task 12

Laughing and evolution

 The first hoots of laughter from an ancient ancestor of humans could be heard at least 10 million years ago, according to the results of a new study. Researchers used recordings of apes and babies being tickled A ______ to the last common ancestor that humans shared with the modern great apes, which include chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans.

The finding challenges the opinion В ______ , suggesting instead that it emerged long before humans split from the evolutionary path that led to our primate cousins, between 10m and 16m years ago.

“In humans, laughing can be the strongest way of expressing how much we are enjoying ourselves, but it can also be used in other contexts, like making fun of someone,” said Marina Davila Ross, a psychologist at Portsmouth University. “I was interested in С ______ .”

Davila Ross travelled to seven zoos around Europe and visited a wildlife reserve in Sabah, Borneo, to record baby and juvenile apes D ______ . Great apes are known to make noises that are similar to laughter when they are excited and while they are playing with each other.

Davila Ross collected recordings of laughter from 21 chimps, gorillas, orangutans and bonobos and added recordings of three babies that were tickled to make them laugh.

To analyze the recordings, the team put them into a computer program. “Our evolutionary tree based on these acoustic recordings alone showed E ______ , but furthest from orangutans, with gorillas somewhere in the middle.” said Davila Ross. “What this shows is strong evidence to suggest F ______ .”

1. whether laughing emerged earlier on than humans did

2. to create the evolutionary tree linking humans and apes

3. that laughter is a uniquely human trait

4. that humans were closest to chimps and bonobos

5. that laughing comes from a common primate ancestor

6. while their caretakers tickled them

7. to trace the origin of laughter back

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
7	3	1	6	4	5

Task 13

Nenets culture affected by global warming

 For 1,000 years the indigenous Nenets people have migrated along the 450-mile- long Yamal peninsula in northern Russia. In summer they wander northwards, taking their reindeer with them. In winter they return southwards.

But this remote region of north-west Siberia is now being affected by global warming. Traditionally the Nenets travel across the frozen River Ob in November A ___ around Nadym. These days, though, this annual winter migration is delayed. Last year the Nenets, together with many thousands of reindeer, had to wait until late December В ____ .

“Our reindeer were hungry. There wasn’t enough food,” Jakov Japtik, a Nenets reindeer herder, said. “The snow is melting sooner, quicker and faster than before. In spring it’s difficult for the reindeer to pull the sledges. They get tired,” Japtik said.

Herders say that the peninsula’s weather is increasingly unpredictable — with unseasonal snowstorms  С ___, and milder longer autumns. In winter, temperatures used to go down to -50°C. Now they are normally around -30°C, according to Japtik. “Obviously we prefer -30°C. But the changes aren’t good for the reindeer D ___,” he said, setting off on his sledge to round up his reindeer herd.

Even here, in one of the most remote parts of the planet, E __ . Last year the Nenets arrived at a regular summer camping spot and discovered that half of their lake had disappeared. The water had drained away after a landslide. The Nenets report other curious changes — there are fewer mosquitoes and a strange increase in flies. Scientists say there is unmistakable evidence F ___ .

1. when the ice was finally thick enough to cross

2. that the impact on Russia would be disastrous

3. the environment is under pressure

4. and in the end what is good for the reindeer is good for us

5. and set up their camps in the southern forests

6. that Yamal’s ancient permafrost is melting

7. when the reindeer give birth in May

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
5	1	7	4	3	6

Task 14

Duration of life and its social implications

The world’s population is about to reach a landmark of huge social and economic importance, when the proportion of the global population over 65 outnumbers children under 5 for the first time. A new report by the US census bureau shows A____ , with enormous consequences for both rich and poor nations.

The rate of growth will shoot up in the next couple of years. The В ___ a combination of the high birth rates after the Second World War and more recent improvements in health that are bringing down death rates at older ages. Separate UN forecasts predict that the global population will be more than nine billion by 2050.

The US census bureau was the first to sound the С ___ . Its latest forecasts warn governments and international bodies that this change in population structure will bring widespread challenges at every level of human organization, starting with the structure of the family, which will be transformed as people live longer. This will in turn place new burdens on careers and social services providers, D ___ for health services and pensions systems.

“People are living longer and, in some parts of the world, healthier lives,” the authors conclude. “This represents one of the greatest achievements of the last century but also a significant challenge E ___ population.”

Ageing will put pressure on societies at all levels. One way of measuring that is to look at the older dependency ratio, F ___ that must be supported by them. The ODR is the number of people aged 65 and over for every 100 people aged 20 to 64. It varies widely, from just six in Kenya to 33 in Italy and Japan. The UK has an ODR of 26, and the US has 21.

1. which recently replaced Italy as the world’s oldest major country

2. alarm about these changes

3. a huge shift towards an ageing population

4. change is due to

5. while patterns of work and retirement will have huge implications

6. which shows the balance between working-age people and the older

7. as proportions of older people increase in most countries

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
3	4	2	5	7	6

Task 15

Elephants sense ‘danger’ clothes

 St Andrews University researchers discovered that elephants could recognise the degree of danger posed by various groups of individuals. The study found that African elephants always reacted with fear A ______ previously worn by men of the Maasai tribe. They are known to demonstrate their courage by В ______ .

The elephants also responded aggressively to red clothing, which defines traditional Maasai dress.

However, the elephants showed a much milder reaction to clothing previously worn by the Kamba people, С ______ and pose little threat.

The researchers first presented elephants with clean, red clothing and with red clothing that had been worn for five days by D ______ .

They revealed that Maasai-smelt clothing motivated elephants to travel significantly faster in the first minute after they moved away.

They then investigated whether elephants could also use the colour of clothing as a cue to classify a potential threat and found the elephants reacted with aggression E ______ . This suggested that they associated the colour red with the Maasai.

The researchers believe the distinction in the elephants’ emotional reaction to smell and colour might be explained by F ______ . They might be able to distinguish among different human groups according to the level of risk they posed.

«We regard this experiment as just a start to investigating precisely how elephants ‘see the world’, and it may be that their abilities will turn out to equal or exceed those of our closer relatives, the monkeys and apes,» researchers added.

1. either a Maasai or a Kamba man

2. who do not hunt elephants

3. when they detected the smell of clothes

4. who carried out the research

5. the amount of risk they sense

6. spearing elephants

7. when they spotted red but not white cloth

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
3	6	2	1	7	5

Task 16

Culture and customs

 In less than twenty years, the mobile telephone has gone from being rare, expensive equipment of the business elite to a pervasive, low-cost personal item. In many countries, mobile telephones A ___ ; in the U.S., 50 per cent of children have mobile telephones. In many young adults’ households it has supplanted the land-line telephone. The mobile phone is В ___ , such as North Korea.

Paul Levinson in his 2004 book Cellphone argues that by looking back through history we can find many precursors to the idea of people simultaneously walking and talking on a mobile phone. Mobile phones are the next extension in portable media, that now can be С ___ into one device. Levinson highlights that as the only mammal to use only two out of our four limbs to walk, we are left two hands free D ___ — like talking on a mobile phone.

Levinson writes that “Intelligence and inventiveness, applied to our need to communicate regardless of where we may be, led logically and eventually to telephones that we E ___ .”

Given the high levels of societal mobile telephone service penetration, it is a key means for people F ___ . The SMS feature spawned the «texting» sub-culture. In December 1993, the first person-to-person SMS text message was transmitted in Finland. Currently, texting is the most widely-used data service; 1.8 billion users generated $80 billion of revenue in 2006.

1. to perform other actions

2. outnumber traditional telephones

3. to communicate with each other 

4. combined with the Internet

5. to serve basic needs

6. banned in some countries

7. carry in our pockets

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
2	6	4	1	7	5

Task 17

My Stage

 My family moved to Rockaway, New Jersey in the summer of 1978. It was there that my dreams of stardom began.

I was nine years old. Heather Lambrix lived next door, and she and I became best friends. I thought she was so lucky A ___ . She took tap and jazz and got to wear cool costumes with bright sequences and makeup and perform on stage. I went to all of her recitals and В ___ .

My living room and sometimes the garage were my stage. I belonged to a cast of four, which consisted of Heather, my two younger sisters, Lisa and Faith, and I. Since I was the oldest and the bossiest, I was the director. Heather came with her own costumes С ___ . We choreographed most of our dance numbers as we went along. Poor Faith … we would throw her around D ___ . She was only about four or five … and so agile. We danced around in our bathing suits to audiocassettes and records from all the Broadway musicals. We’d put a small piece of plywood on the living room carpet, E ___ . And I would imitate her in my sneakers on the linoleum in the hall. I was a dancer in the making.

My dad eventually converted a part of our basement into a small theater. He hung two “spotlights” and a sheet for a curtain. We performed dance numbers to tunes like “One” and “The Music and the Mirror” from A Chorus Line. I sang all the songs from Annie. I loved to sing, F ___. I just loved to sing. So I belted out songs like “Tomorrow”, “Maybe” and “What I Did For Love.” I knew then, this is what I wanted to do with my life.

1. like she was a rag doll

2. whether I was good at it or not

3. wished I, too, could be on stage

4. and I designed the rest

5. and I was star struck

6. so Heather could do her tap routine

7. because she got to go to dance lessons

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
7	3	4	1	6	2

Task 18

Cat’s punctuality

 Sergeant Podge, a Norwegian Forest Cat, disappears from his owner’s home in a small town in Kent, every night. But what baffles his owner, Liz Bullard, mostly is the fact that the next morning, the 12-year-old cat always pops up in exactly the same place, A ___ . And every morning Ms. Bullard takes her son to school before collecting Sergeant Podge.

She said that the routine had set in earlier this year, when Sergeant Podge disappeared one day. Ms. Bullard spent hours telephoning her neighbours В ___ .

An elderly woman living about one and a half miles away called back to inform Ms. Bullard that she had found a cat matching Sergeant Podge’s description. Ms. Bullard picked him up but within days he vanished from sight again. She rang the elderly woman С ___ .

She said a routine has now become established, where each morning she takes her son to school before driving to collect Sergeant Podge D ___ .

It is thought Sergeant Podge walks across a golf course every night to reach his destination.

Ms. Bullard said: “If it’s raining he may be in the bush but he comes running if I clap my hands.” All she has to do is open the car passenger door from the inside for Sergeant Podge to jump in.

Ms. Bullard also makes the trip at weekends and during school holidays — E ___ .

She does not know why, after 12 years, Sergeant Podge has begun the routine but explained that another woman who lived nearby used to feed him sardines, and that he may be F ___ .

His owner doesn’t mind his wandering off at night as long as she knows where to collect him.

1. on the look-out for more treats

2. from the pavement between 0800 and 0815 GMT

3. to discover Sergeant Podge was back outside her home

4. on a pavement about one and a half miles (2.4km) away

5. to identify if anyone had bumped into him

6. when her son is having a lie-in

7. collected by car every morning

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
4	5	3	2	6	1

Task 19

Do you speak English?

When I arrived in England I thought I knew English. After I’d been here an hour I realized that I did not understand one word. In the first week I picked up a tolerable working knowledge of the language and the next seven years convinced me gradually but thoroughly that I A ______ , let alone perfectly. This is sad. My only consolation being that nobody speaks English perfectly.

Remember that those five hundred words an average Englishman uses are B ______ . You may learn another five hundred and another five thousand and yet another fifty thousand and still you may come across a further fifty thousand C ______ .

If you live here long enough you will find out to your greatest amazement that the adjective nice is not the only adjective the language possesses, in spite of the fact that D ______ . You can say that the weather is nice, a restaurant is nice, Mr. Soandso is nice, Mrs. Soandso’s clothes are nice, you had a nice time, E ______ .

Then you have to decide on your accent. The easiest way to give the impression of having a good accent or no foreign accent at all is to hold an unlit pipe in your mouth, to mutter between your teeth and finish all your sentences with the question: “isn’t it?” People will not understand much, but they are accustomed to that and they will get a F ______ .

1. whatever it costs

2. most excellent impression

3. you have never heard of before, and nobody else either

4. in the first three years you do not need to learn or use any other adjectives

5. would never know it really well

6. far from being the whole vocabulary of the language

7. and all this

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
5	6	3	4	7	2

Task 20

Before the Hubble Space Telescope was launched, scientists thought they knew the universe. They were wrong.

The Hubble Space Telescope has changed many scientists’ view of the universe. The telescope is named after American astronomer Edwin Hubble, A ______ .

He established that many galaxies exist and developed the first system for their classifications.

In many ways, Hubble is like any other telescope. It simply gathers light. It is roughly the size of a large school bus. What makes Hubble special is not what it is, B ______ .

Hubble was launched in 1990 from the “Discovery” space shuttle and it is about 350 miles above our planet, C ______ .

It is far from the glare of city lights, it doesn’t have to look through the air, D ______ .

And what a view it is! Hubble is so powerful it could spot a fly on the moon. Yet in an average orbit, it uses the same amount of energy as 28100-watt light bulbs. Hubble pictures require no film. The telescope takes digital images E ______ .

Hubble has snapped photos of storms on Saturn and exploding stars. Hubble doesn’t just focus on our solar system. It also peers into our galaxy and beyond. Many Hubble photos show the stars that make up the Milky Way galaxy. A galaxy is a city of stars.

Hubble cannot take pictures of the sun or other very bright objects, because doing so could “fry” the telescope’s instruments, but it can detect infrared and ultra violet light F ______ .

Some of the sights of our solar system that Hubble has glimpsed may even change the number of planets in it.

1. which is above Earth’s atmosphere.

2. which are transmitted to scientists on Earth.

3. which is invisible to the human eye.

4. who calculated the speed at which galaxies move.

5. so it has a clear view of space.

6. because many stars are in clouds of gas.

7. but where it is.

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
4	7	1	5	2	3

Task 21

The science of sound, or acoustics, as it is often called, has been made over radically within a comparatively short space of time. Not so long ago the lectures on sound in colleges and high schools dealt chiefly with the vibrations of such things as the air columns in organ pipes. Nowadays, however, thanks chiefly to a number of electronic instruments engineers can study sounds as effectively A ____ . The result has been a new approach to research in sound. Scientists have been able to make far-reaching discoveries in many fields of acoustics B _____ .

Foremost among the instruments that have revolutionized the study of acoustics are electronic sound-level meters also known as sound meters and sound-intensity meters. These are effective devices that first convert sound waves into weak electric signals, then amplify the signals through electronic means C ______ . The intensity of a sound is measured in units called decibels. “Zero” sound is the faintest sound D ______ . The decibel measures the ratio of the intensity of a given sound to the standard “zero” sound. The decibel scale ranges from 0 to 130. An intensity of 130 decibels is perceived not only as a sound, but also E ______ . The normal range of painlessly audible sounds for the average human ear is about 120 decibels. For forms of life other than ourselves, the range can be quite different.

The ordinary sound meter measures the intensity of a given sound, rather than its actual loudness. Under most conditions, however, it is a quite good indicator of loudness. Probably the loudest known noise ever heard by human ears was that of the explosive eruption in August, 1883, of the volcano of Krakatoa in the East Indies. No electronic sound meters, of course, were in existence then, but physicists estimate that the sound at its source must have had an intensity of 190 decibels, F ______ .

1. and finally measure them.

2. since it was heard 3,000 miles away.

3. and they have been able to put many of these discoveries to practical use.

4. that loud sound is of high intensity.

5. as they study mechanical forces.

6. as a painful sensation in the ear.

7. that the unaided human ear can detect.

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
5	3	1	7	6	2

Task 22

Chocolate 

Chocolate is made from a number of raw and processed foods produced from the seeds of tropical cacao trees. Cacao has been cultivated in A ______ at least 3000 years. For most of this time it was made into a drink called, in translation — “bitter water”. This is because В ______ to be fermented to develop a palatable flavour. After fermentation the beans are dried and roasted and the shell is removed to produce cacao nibs. These are then ground and liquefied into chocolate liquor. The liquor is then processed into cocoa solids or cocoa butter. Pure chocolate contains primarily cocoa solids and butter in different proportions. Much of С ______ with added sugar. Milk chocolate is sweetened chocolate that additionally contains either milk powder or condensed milk. White chocolate on the other D ______ is therefore not a true chocolate. Chocolate contains theobromine and phenethylamine which have physiological effects on the body. It is similar to serotonin levels in the brain. Scientists claim E ______ , can lower blood pressure. Recently, dark chocolate has also been promoted for its health benefits. But pet owners should remember that the presence of theobromine makes it toxic to cats and dogs. Chocolate is now one F______ , although 16 of the top 20 chocolate consuming countries are in Europe. Also interesting is that 66% of world chocolate is consumed between meals.

1. the chocolate consumed today is made

2. that chocolate, eaten in moderation

3. central and southern America for

4. of the world’s most popular flavours

5. hand contains no cocoa solids and

6. cacao seeds are intensely bitter and have

7. many countries worldwide at

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
3	6	1	5	2	4

Task 23

Reality TV

 Reality TV seems to dominate broadcasting these days. But what is it, how did it emerge and why on earth is it so popular? The first question is easily answered. Reality TV A ______ presents unscripted, dramatic or humorous situations or events. It can involve celebrities В ______ of the public. Reality TV has been gradually growing in importance for over 60 years. “Candid Camera” — the show that filmed ordinary people reacting to set ups and pranks — started in 1948. Some people, however, believe it was the Japanese with their awful shows in the 1980s and 90s that brought reality TV to centre stage. Others believe С ______ that is called “Big Brother” was the show that spawned the reality TV age. But why are the shows so popular? Different theories come to life. Some believe that it is D ______ we like to watch horrible behaviour: the same instinct that once inspired the ancient Romans to go and watch gladiators destroy each other at the Coliseum. Others suggest a kind of voyeurism is involved there — an unhealthy curiosity to spy on other people’s lives.

Whatever the real reason — the trend seems to have already peaked. A lot of such shows E ______ or are expected to go in the near future. And the replacement seems to be talents shows — watching competitions in dance, singing and general entertainment. Does it mean that people are changing? It is too early to say. Most agree that these F ______ .

1. due to basic human instinct that

2. is still early to judge

3. are simply the cycles of fashion

4. but more usually the stars are members

5. that the television phenomenon

6. is a type of programme that

7. seem to have disappeared

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
6	4	5	1	7	3

Task 24

Mikhail Lomonosov and Moscow State University

 Mikhail Lomonosov was one of the intellectual titans of XVIII century. His interests ranged from history, rhetoric, art and poetry A ______ . Alexander Pushkin described him as В ______ , whose lifelong passion was learning.

Lomonosov’s activity is a manifestation of the enormous potential of the Russian scientific community. Peter I reformed Russia, which allowed the country to reach the standard of С ______ many spheres. Great importance was placed on education. St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, founded by Peter I, established a university and a grammar school to educate intellectuals and researchers the country needed; however, these educational establishments could not fulfill the task they took on. It was Michail Lomonosov D ______ of establishing a university in Moscow. An influential courtier and the E ______ Count Shuvalov supported Lomonosov’s plans for a new university and presented them to the Empress.

In 1755, on 25 January-St. Tatiana’s Day according to the Russian Orthodox Church calendar — Elizaveta signed the decree that a university should be founded in Moscow. The opening ceremony took place on 26 April, when Elizaveta’s coronation day was celebrated. Since 1755 25 January and 26 April F ______ Moscow University; the annual conference where students present the results of their research work is traditionally held in April.

1. who suggested in his letter to Count Shuvalov the idea

2. to mechanics, chemistry and mineralogy

3. a person of formidable willpower and keen scientific mind

4. favourite of Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, the patron of arts and science

5. the contemporary European powers in

6. are marked by special events and festivities at

7. famous among all educated people

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
2	3	5	1	4	6

Task 25

Window Shopping

 The day would be spent with my best friends Kath and Kate. We are actually three Catherines (by birth spelt with a C), A______ we are all K’s: Kat (that’s me), Kath and Kate — the 3K Window Shopping gang!

Window shopping is simply wonderful. You can look at any outfit. You can try on В ______ not a single item on sale for which the price is a problem. You will try something on, ponder, pout, twirl, think hard, check yourself in the mirror one last time and finally reflect С ______ right for you! The highlight of this regular adventure however, is generally the 3K chocolate and ice cream break in the Shopping Centre’s top floor cafii Of course we do not believe that we are wasting anyone’s time. We do D ______ as well, but a reliable equation for us is — 3Ks + shopping mall = a good time.

But E ______ out to be especially memorable. One of the stores had a questionnaire lottery with the first prize being a voucher worth £200. We filled in the question forms while in the cafiiand returned to the store by their 2.00pm deadline. Kate won the first prize but we had decided in advance that if any of us won something, we would share equally: All for one К and one for all! At this point our morning of window shopping paid off. We completed F ______ slightly less than 10 minutes: three skirts, three hats and three belts and three very OK, K’s.

1. not like to spend our time

2. that it’s probably not quite

3. that particular day turned

4. our real shopping in

5. sometimes go shopping for real

6. anything you want and there is

7. but when we are together

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
7	6	2	5	3	4

Task 26

The Hotel

 “Have you stayed with us before sir?” asked the receptionist. His accent sounded middle-European; Czech possibly or Polish. Actually I hadn’t stayed at this particular hotel before A ______ to many others from the same chain that I had stayed at. “No — first time” I replied with unnecessary brevity. The thing is I always feel В ______ rather than treated as an individual. Every word that I was about to hear, I had heard before — delivered no doubt from the depths of a tourism and hospitality course. “Welcome to Newcastle sir. Is this your first visit to our city? Can I trouble you to complete this form? Actually the first two lines and the signature at the bottom will do. Would you like С ______ , Sir? This will automatically unlock room facilities like mini-bar and telephone and any other extras you may require. Can I see your passport sir?” The questions and information D ______ responses were actually required and I handed over my passport, credit card and partly filled out form. I was tempted to write under name and address “Donald Duck, Duck Towers, Disney Street” — E ______ ever read the form again. But being a creature of habit I wrote my real name and address. While my card was being processed I looked across the reception area through the wall height windows to the beautiful River Tyne. A wave of nostalgia came over me. It was good to be back. I found myself thinking about her again and wondering F ______ a voice broke in: “It’s a plastic key card sir. You also need it to activate the lift and when you get to your room, plug it into the switch on the left as you open the door. It will automatically supply electricity to the room. Any help with your baggage? No? Then enjoy your stay”. The accomplished young Pole smiled as he delivered the final command and duly processed, I proceeded to the card activated lift.

1. me to take a print of your credit card

2. points poured out smoothly, no verbal

3. if I would even see her when

4. although it seemed virtually identical

5. so sure was I that nobody would

6. me to help you with your luggage

7. as if I am being processed like a product

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
4	7	1	2	5	3

5

Task 27

Lindsay Wildlife Museum

 Lindsay Wildlife Museum is a unique natural history and environmental education centre where visitors can listen to the cry of a red-tailed hawk, go eye-to-eye with a grey fox and watch a bald eagle eat lunch. More than fifty species of native California animals are on exhibit here.

 Thousands of school children learn about the natural environment in their classrooms A ____ of the museum. Nature- and science- oriented classes and trips are offered for adults and children. More than 600 volunteers help to feed and care for wild animals, В _____. Volunteers are active in the museum’s work, contributing С ____.

 The museum was founded by a local businessman, Alexander Lindsay. Sandy, as friends knew him, started teaching neighborhood children about nature in the early 1950s. Initially housed in an elementary school, the museum began offering school-aged children summer classes, D ____.

 After nearly a decade of the museum operation, it became apparent E ____. With a new 5,000 square-foot home, the museum could now develop and display a permanent collection of live, native wildlife and natural history objects. People came to the museum for help with wild animals F ___ urban growth. In response, a formal wildlife rehabilitation programme — the first of its kind in the United States of America — began in 1970.

1. that a permanent, year-round site was necessary

2. as well as field trips focused on the natural world

3. many hours of service to wildlife care and fundraising

4. that had been injured or orphaned because of intense

5. that needed public attention and a new building

6. as well as teach children and adults about nature

7. through education programmes and on-site tours

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
7	6	3	2	1	4

Task 28

America’s fun place on America’s main street

 If any city were considered a part of every citizen in the United States, it would be Washington, DC. To many, the Old Post Office Pavilion serves A ____. If you are in the area, be a part of it all by visiting us — or В ____. Doing so will keep you aware of the latest musical events, great happenings and international dining, to say the least.

Originally built in 1899, the Old Post Office Pavilion embodied the modern spirit С ____. Today, our architecture and spirit of innovation continues to evolve and thrive. And, thanks to forward-thinking people, you can now stroll through the Old Post Office Pavilion and experience both D ____ with international food, eclectic shopping and musical events. All designed to entertain lunch, mid-day and after work audiences all week long.

A highlight of the Old Post Office Pavilion is its 315-foot Clock Tower. Offering a breath-taking view of the city, National Park Service Rangers give free Clock Tower tours every day! Individuals and large tour groups are all welcome. The Old Post Office Clock Tower also proudly houses the official United States Bells of Congress, a gift from England E ____. The Washington Ringing Society sounds the Bells of Congress every Thursday evening and on special occasions.

Visit the Old Post Office Pavilion, right on Pennsylvania Avenue between the White House and the Capitol. It is a great opportunity F ____, this is a landmark not to be missed no matter your age.

1. that are offered to the visitors

2. its glamorous past and fun-filled present

3. as a landmark reminder of wonderful experiences

4. by joining our e-community

5. that was sweeping the country

6. celebrating the end of the Revolutionary War

7. to learn more about American history

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
3	4	5	2	6	7

Task 29

Number of teenagers with Saturday job drops

 The number of teenagers with Saturday jobs has dropped. Young people do not acquire any experience for their CVs — a crucial step towards getting full-time work. The proportion of teenagers combining part-time jobs with school or college has slumped from 40% in the 1990s to around 20% now, according to the UK Commission for Employment and Skills (UKCES), a government agency. Latest figures show that only A ____ in 1997.

The trend is not just recession-related, but the result of an increasing expectation В ____ well as a falling number of Saturday jobs, according to the report. Many of the jobs that young people do, such as bar work, are in long-term decline, and are forecast to decline further over the next decade.

«Recruiters place significant emphasis on experience С ____,» the report says. Word of mouth is the most common way to get a job, D _____ young people are unable to build up informal contacts, it adds.

Ms. Todd, a commissioner at the UKCES, said: «There’s more emphasis on doing well at school, young people are finding less time to do what they would have done a few years ago.» «I think it’s also the changing structure of the labour market. Retail is still a big employer, E ____. As a consequence, we need to think about how we get young people the work experience they need.»

A new initiative to send employees into state schools to talk about their careers was also launched recently. The scheme, Inspiring the Future, is meant to give state schoolchildren access to the kind of careers advice that private schools offer. The deputy prime minister said: «The power of making connections F ____ and can be life-changing.»

1. that it was researching the system of funding education after 16

2. 260,000 teenagers have a Saturday job compared with 435,000

3. but young people are leaving education increasingly less experienced

4. that inspire young people is immeasurable

5. but an increasing shortage of work experience means

6. that young people should stay on at school, as

7. but a lot more of it is being done online

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
2	6	3	5	7	4

Task 30

Lots of fun in Cardiff

 As you would expect of a capital city, Cardiff offers a huge choice of exciting sport and entertainment throughout the year.

Every March the city celebrates St. David, Wales’ patron saint, with parades and music. August sees the International Festival of Street Entertainment, with the heart of the city A ____. Family fun days in the parks and at the waterfront are part of this sensational summer scene. Brass and military bands are often to be seen on Cardiff s streets. Between May and October the world’s only seagoing paddle steamer cruises from Cardiff’s seaside resort.

In autumn the fun continues with Cardiff s Festival of the Arts В _____. Music is at the centre of the festival, with international stars С ____. Christmas in Cardiff is full of colour and festivities. The truly spectacular Christmas illuminations have earned Cardiff the title of «Christmas City». And there is entertainment for all the family, D ____.

There is always something happening in Cardiff. The BBC National Orchestra of Wales and Welsh National Opera can both be heard here. Cardiff previews many London «West End» shows E _____.

The city’s range of accommodation facilities is truly impressive, F ____. And with a city as compact as Cardiff there are places to stay in all price brackets.

1. from international names to family-run guest houses

2. joining some of Wales’ most talented musicians

3. having their summer holidays in Cardiff

4. that usually attract hundreds of theatre lovers

5. which features music, film, literature and graphics

6. from pantomimes to Christmas tree celebrations

7. beating with dance and theatrical performances

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
7	5	2	6	4	1

Task 31

Changing image

 For more than 200 years Madame Tussaud’s has been attracting tourists from all over the world and it remains just as popular as it ever was. There are many reasons for this enduring success, but at the heart of it all is good, old-fashioned curiosity.

Madame Tussaud’s original concept has entered a brand new era of interactive entertainment A _____. Today’s visitors are sent on a breathtaking journey in black cabs through hundreds of years of the past. They have a unique chance to see the great legends of history, В _____ of politics.

Much of the figure construction technique follows the traditional pattern, beginning whenever possible with the subject С _____ and personal characteristics. The surprising likeliness of the wax portraits also owes much to many stars D _____, either by providing their stage clothes, or simply giving useful advice.

The museum continues constantly to add figures E ____ popularity. The attraction also continues to expand globally with established international branches in New York, Hong Kong, Amsterdam and many other cities. And they all have the same rich mix of interaction, authenticity and local appeal.

The museum provides a stimulating and educational environment for schoolchildren. Its specialists are working together with practicing teachers and educational advisors to create different programmes of activities, F ____.

1. as well as resources on art, technology and drama

2. as well as the idols of popular music and the icons

3. who is sitting to determine exact measurements

4. ranging from special effects to fully animated figures

5. ranging from all kinds of souvenirs to sports equipment

6. that reflect contemporary public opinion and celebrity

7. who are eager to help in any possible way they can

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
4	2	3	7	6	1

Task 32

Saturday jobs: memories of weekend working

 Research has shown a sharp fall in the number of teenagers who do Saturday jobs. It seems such a shame — my Saturday job as a kitchen porter was something of a rite of passage. I’ll never forget long hours A _____, scouring grease off huge saucepans and griddles. Working atmosphere there helped me grow a thicker skin, develop quicker banter and, most importantly, taught me the value of hard work. It also resulted in a steady supply of cash, В ____. I’m not the only one who has strong memories of weekend work. DJ Trevor Nelson said everyone should be able to have a Saturday job: «It taught me a lot, С ____.»

The link between the type of Saturday job a celebrity performed and their later career is sometimes obvious. Dragon’s Den star and businessman Peter Jones, for example, showed early promise by starting his own business. «I passed my Lawn Tennis Association coaching exam, D ____,» he explains. «At the start I was coaching other kids, E ____, for which I could charge £25-30 an hour. While my friends on milk rounds were getting £35 a week, I was doing five hours on a Saturday and earning four times as much.»

Skier Chemmy Alcott got a job working for the Good Ski Guide, on the advertising side. «It became clear to me what my personal value to companies could be. It led directly to me finding my head sponsor … and it offered me an eight-year contract. That gave me the financial backing F ____.»

As part of its response to the Saturday job statistics, the UK Commission for Employment and Skills said a lack of early work opportunities makes it harder for young people to acquire experience for their СVs.

1. and things would be different if everyone was given the chance

2. which let me know he approved of me

3. and I persuaded my local club to let me use a court on Saturdays

4. which I needed to become a professional skier

5. which I would happily spend as I liked

6. that I spent in the kitchen of a busy country pub in East Sussex

7. but soon I got adults wanting to book lessons

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
6	5	1	3	7	4

Task 33

Orient Express

 In the early 1860s, trains were the preferred way to travel. They weren’t particularly comfortable, however, until American engineer George Mortimer Pullman decided to make trains more luxurious.

By the late 1860s, trains furnished not only sleeping cars, but kitchen and dining facilities, where A _____. This was innovative for the time, and was aimed to encourage people В _____. The first of these Pullman trains in England ran from London to Brighton and used electricity for illumination.

In 1881, another railway entrepreneur, George Nagelmacker, introduced the use of a restaurant car onboard, and the first Orient Express train service was begun. Running from Paris to Romania the route included Strasbourg, Vienna, Budapest and Bucharest.

Thanks to the 12 mile Simplon Tunnel, С _____, the Orient Express expanded, including a route to Istanbul, and the legendary romance of the Orient Express was in full swing.

Everyone in the social register, including royalty, chose to travel on the wheels of that luxury hotel D _____ in wealthy surroundings. Legends, stories, and intrigue surrounded those trips to exotic places, and those famous people E _____.

Unfortunately, during World War II this luxury travel was closed for the most part, and later, after the war, F ____ to start it again. Within the next few years airplane travel became popular, and train passenger service declined.

1. elegant meals were served to passengers

2. to use trains for long distance travel and vacations

3. who rode the train

4. who wrote about it

5. which connected Switzerland and Italy

6. that served dishes and wines

7. there was no money

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
1	2	5	6	3	7

Task 34

Arizona’s world class cruise

 Spectacular Canyon Lake is situated in the heart of the Superstition Mountains in Arizona, giving home to the Dolly Steamboat. The Dolly Steamboat, A ____, now cruises the secluded inner waterways of this beautiful lake. It is worth exploring this favourite destination of President Theodore Roosevelt who declared, «The Apache Trail and surrounding area combines the grandeur of the Alps, the glory of the Rockies, the magnificence of the Grand Canyon and then adds something В ____.» You will marvel as you travel up to the national forest, which provides the most inspiring and beautiful panorama С ____. Every trip brings new discoveries of rock formations, geological history, and the flora and fauna distinct to the deserts of Arizona.

Once aboard the Dolly Steamboat, you may view the majestic desert big horn sheep, bald eagles and a host bird of other wildlife, water fowl, D ____. Experience the unique sound harmony that is created by the waters of Canyon Lake. Stretch out and relax at one of the tables or stand next to the railings on the deck. There is plenty of leg room on the Dolly. You will get a unique chance to listen to the captain E ____.

All the passengers are treated with outstanding service and personal attention to every need. Feel free to ask questions, move about and mingle with the crew. So enjoy an unforgettable vacation cruise and see F ____ ,like a ride on Arizona’s Dolly Steamboat.

1. that nature has ever created in the wild

2. that none of the others have

3. hovering over the magnificent lake

4. who retells the legends of the mysterious past

5. for yourself why there is nothing quite

6. who pays much attention to children’s safety

7. continuing a tradition of cruising since 1925

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
7	2	1	3	4	5

Task 35

US Congress

 The Congress of the United States of America is an important part of the US federal government.

It is an assembly of elected representatives A ____ but not to select the chief executive of the nation; that individual is elected by the people.

Congress is not a single organization; it is a vast and complex collection of organizations B ____ and through which members of Congress form alliances.

C ____, in which political parties are the only important kind of organization, parties are only one of many important units in Congress.

In fact other organizations have grown in number D ____.

The Democrats and Republicans in the House and the Senate are organized by party leaders, E ____ within the House and Senate. The party structure is essentially the same in the House as in the Senate, though the titles of various posts are different.

But leadership carries more power in the House than in the Senate because of the House rules. F _____, the House must restrict debate and schedule its business with great care; thus leaders who do the scheduling and who determine how the rules shall be applied usually have substantial influence.

1. as party influence has declined

2. against the spirit of the Constitution

3. being so large (435 members)

4. empowered to make laws

5. unlike the British Parliament

6. by which the business of Congress is carried on

7. who in turn are elected by the full party membership

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
4	6	5	1	7	3

Task 36

The Trailblazers

 In the early 1800s, the area that would become the western United States was completely undeveloped.

Explorers, hunters, traders, and settlers had to blaze their own trails. A____ to move possessions and supplies became common place.

Manifest Destiny was the belief that Americans had a God-given right to take over the continent. As they moved west, settlers used this policy B_____ to new people and territories.

Trails increased trade opportunities between western and eastern regions, and the U.S. economy prospered C_____ on each other for goods.

To achieve Manifest Destiny, the United States purchased land from other countries or conquered territory D_____ until its borders stretched from coast to coast.

More than one-half million people chose to travel West on trails between 1800 and 1870, E_____.

As new technology spread across the West, however, the use of trails came to an end. The railroads built thousands of miles of tracks, and, F ____, a cheap, relatively safe, and quick way to transport people and supplies to western areas existed.

1. to spread U.S. ideas and government

2. for the first time in history

3. thus replacing them forever

4. as territories became interdependent

5. the use of covered wagons

6. by taking land from Native peoples

7. forming the largest mass migration in history

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
5	1	4	6	7	2

Task 37

A Young Mayor

 This is a very unusual case, but as you will see, unusual doesn’t mean impossible.

An 18-year-old school girl has become the youngest mayor of a British town in history. Amanda Bracebridge, A_____, won leadership of Clun village council in a dramatic election last night. The tiny village only has 122 voters and Amanda won the election by just two votes from the only other candidate, 69-year-old Fred Gardner of the Conservative party. Amanda, B _____, was an independent candidate. She was surprised by her success, C _____. “My election promise was to make sure D _____,” she told us. She was referring to the plans from a large company to buy up farmland and build flats there. “We live in one of the most beautiful villages in Shropshire and I want to make sure it stays that way.”

Amanda, who is in her last year at nearby Bishop’s Castle High School, E _____ and her exams which she takes in two months. “It’s going to be a pretty busy few months,” she said. “But when the exams are over I will be able to concentrate completely on helping my village”.

Amanda had plans to go to university but is now going to start a year later F _____. “I’ve talked to Leeds University and they say my place will wait for me”. And what is she going to study? Politics? “No, actually, I am going to do sociology and economics”.

1. who is not a member of any political party

2. that our village would be protected from outside interests

3. but it was not a total shock to her

4. being a politics student at the university

5. so she can do her job as mayor properly

6. who is only just old enough to vote herself

7. will have to find time for her work as mayor

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
6	1	3	2	7	5

Task 38

Is there enough to say?

 They only appeared about ten years ago but already they are everywhere, everyone’s got one. They are the wonder of the modern age — mobile phones, or cell phones, A ____. Apparently, mobile phones are now used by about 2.5 billion people worldwide, and about one billion new mobile phones are sold every year worldwide. Go back to 1997, and only 100 million were sold. As we can see, the mobile phone business B_____.

And the developments keep on coming. Once we could only make phone calls; now mobile phones C_____ and do many other useful things. Once we had to hold our mobile phones in our hand; now we can use throat microphones. What next? We are told that soon, tiny microphones will be implanted into our lips. We’ll be able to dial numbers just by saying them.

But surely we need to ask ourselves: What’s good about this? OK, we can talk to other people almost all the time now — but is that so great? Watch and listen to people when a plane has landed. Anxious D _____, dial a number, and then: “It’s me, I’m here. I’ll be there in twenty minutes.” Is this communication? Is this what all these years of technology have brought us to?

In the early days of communication there were letters. When they arrived at your house, you knew they had been delivered by a man E _____.

In those days, people would think very hard before they wrote a letter. You had to have a good reason to write — communication was serious. Now it’s not — people phone each other F ____. Once the phone was a way for people far away from each other to talk — now it’s just an excuse to talk.

1. has been developed very quickly

2. not understand why they are doing it for

3. as Americans call them

4. riding halfway across the country on a horse

5. just because they can

6. can also be used to take and send photos

7. fingers immediately switch on the mobile phone

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
3	1	6	7	4	5

Task 39

Promoting language learning

 The European Union (EU) is committed to supporting the rights of its citizens to personal and professional mobility, and their ability to communicate with each other. It does so by A_____ to promote the teaching and learning of European languages. These programmes have at least one thing in common: they cover cross-border projects involving partners from two, and often three or more, EU countries.

The EU programmes are designed to complement the national education policies of member countries. Each government is responsible for its own national education policy, B_____. What the EU programmes do is to create links between countries and regions via joint projects, C____.

Since 2007 the main programmes have been put under the overall umbrella of the EU’s lifelong learning programme. All languages are eligible for support under this programme: official languages, regional, minority and migrant languages, D____. There are national information centres in each country, E_____.

The cultural programmes of the EU also promote linguistic and cultural diversity in a number of ways. The “Media” programme funds the dubbing and subtitling of European films for F ____. The “Culture” programme builds cross-cultural bridges by supporting the translation of modern authors into other EU languages.

1. and the languages of the EU’s major trading partners

2. which includes language teaching and learning

3. cinemas and television in other EU countries

4. which enhance the impact of language teaching and learning

5. funding a number of educational programmes

6. and encouraging people to learn new languages

7. where details about the application procedures are given

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
5	2	4	1	7	3

Task 40

Starting your own business

What are the reasons for starting your own business? One of them is because you believe you are the best in that line or because you have a product or service that has never been offered to the market before. Another is that you are a person in a real hurry and cannot suffer the A_____ to reach your goals. Sometimes it is because you have an inheritance B_____ soon after you set up a business or that there already is a cash purse with loose strings and you want to make the best of this bonanza.

If your reasons are any or all of the above, abandon the thought right now and save yourself the disillusionment C____ into the world of commerce.

Start your own business just for the sake of doing a trade, or for D____. Do not burden yourself with lofty notions of superiority when compared to your peers. When setting out to start your own business, be emotional about it, but not impractical; don’t be led by your heart, but be dictated by your mind.

Having covered those parts that are not taught in a business school, let us look at E____ your own business. You should start with a SWOT analysis – strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats – analyze these for yourself, for partners in your business, if any, and for the business itself.

If the result of the analysis is encouraging, then prepare a business plan. It is like a road map for actions in the near foreseeable future to achieve your business goals. Finally, execute the business plan with precision; tweak it as you go along, only so that it helps to meet the end goal of successfully F_____ the business.

1. the essentials of starting

2. that awaits when you step

3. trials and tribulations of employment

4. establishing and conducting

5. preparing a business plan

6. waiting to be acquired

7. undertaking the commercial activity

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
3	6	2	7	1	4

Task 41

Archaeology done underwater

 Nautical archaeology is the science of finding, collecting, preserving, and studying human objects that have become lost or buried under water. It is a fairly modern field of study since it depends on having the technology to be able to remain underwater for some time to do real work. Whether it is conducted in freshwater or in the sea, A____, nautical archaeology is another way of learning more about the human past.

Although some use the words nautical archaeology to mean a specialized branch of underwater archaeology, B____, most consider the term to mean the same as the words underwater archaeology or marine

archaeology. All of these interchangeable terms mean simply C_____.

Once real trade began, it is safe to say D_____ was probably transported over water at some point in time. By studying submerged objects, we can learn more about past human cultures. In fact, studying ancient artifacts is the only way to learn anything about human societies E_____. Being able to examine the actual objects made and used by ancient people not only adds to the written records they left behind, but allows us to get much closer to the reality of what life was like when they lived. Also, if we pay close attention to how the objects were made and used, we begin to get a more realistic picture of F_____.

1. that existed long before the invention of writing

2. that nearly every object made by humans

3. what those people were really like

4. which is concerned only with ships and the history of seafaring

5. that it is the study of archaeology done underwater

6. and whether it finds sunken ships or old cities

7. and what was discovered underwater

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
6	4	5	2	1	3

Task 42

Visiting the Royal Parks

 London has a well-deserved reputation as one of the greenest cities in Europe, with a huge number of open spaces across the center of the city. Tourists A_____ can always relax in a lovely, quiet London park.

The Royal Parks, such as St James’s, Green Park, the Regent’s Park, Hyde Park, Richmond, Greenwich, Bushy Park and Kensington Gardens, are beautifully maintained and popular with locals and visitors alike. Many are former hunting estates of English monarchs, preserved as open space B______. They are ideal places to relax and sunbathe in summer, enjoy gorgeous flower beds in spring C_____.

The Royal Parks provide fantastic green routes in London D______ and through some of the most attractive areas of the capital. Picnics in the parks are also a popular activity especially during the busy summer months.

Dogs are welcome in all the Royal Parks, although there are some places E_____. These are clearly indicated within each park and are usually ecologically sensitive sites, children’s play areas, restaurants, cafes and some sports areas. Ground nesting birds are particularly sensitive to disturbance by dogs and people. So it is necessary to observe the warning signs F____. In Bushy Park and Richmond Park dogs should be kept away from the deer.

The Royal Parks are for everyone to enjoy.

1. that are displayed during the nesting season

2. while the city has grown up around them

3. and admire the changing leaves as autumn arrives

4. where they are not allowed or should be kept on a lead

5. who are tired of the noise, crowds and excitement of sightseeing

6. who does not know the route to the place of destination

7. that take cyclists away from traffic

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
5	2	3	7	4	1

Task 43

The Survival of the Welsh Language

 Wales is a small country of just over 3 million people, on the north west seaboard of Europe. Despite many historical incursions of other peoples, particularly the English, it has preserved its ancient Celtic language, A_____. Welsh is habitually spoken by about 10% of the people, half understood by a further 10%, and not spoken at all by the majority in this ‘bilingual’ society.

Up to the First World War most people were Welsh speaking, especially in the mountains of North Wales. The English-speaking areas were along the more fertile coastal plains. On the whole there was an easy tolerance of the two languages, B______.

By 1919 there was a considerable drop in Welsh speakers. This was due to the large flows of capital investment from England into the South Wales coalfield, C_____.

Now, D_____, commerce and everyday business were carried out in English.

In the rural mountain areas 80% to 85% of the population were Welsh speakers, E ____. However, in the coalfield country of Glamorgan 70% spoke English only, and in its neighbour border county the figure was over 90%.

By 1931 the number of people able to speak Welsh in the whole of Wales had fallen to 37% of the population, F ____. It continued to drop and reached its lowest – 18.6% — in the 1990s. But by the start of the 21st century, numbers had begun to increase again and reached 21.7% in 2004!

1. as well as education and the law

2. the only one of a number of allied languages that remain

3. with radio and the English press further speeding the decline

4. many being able to speak Welsh only

5. where Welsh was studied as language and literature in an academic manner

6. apart from the fact that Welsh was not permitted to be used at all in the schools

7. bringing a flood of immigrant labour from all over Britain

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
2	6	7	1	4	3

Task 44

Secrets of Long Life

 There are places in the world where people live longer than anywhere else. The remote Japanese island of Okinawa is one of these places. While the lifespan in Britain is 77 years for men and 81 for women, Okinawa has a population of about one million, of which 900 are centenarians — A_____ in Britain or the USA. So what is their secret of long life?

«The calendar may say they’re 80, but their body says they’re 60,» says Bradley Willcox, a scientist researching the extraordinary phenomenon. The research has shown hormonal differences between Okinawans and B____ but their longevity has been linked to diet. They eat more tofu and soya than any other people in the world and also enjoy a range of different fruit and vegetables, all rich in anti-oxidants. But the most significant thing isn’t what they eat but how much. The Okinawans C_____ known as ‘hara hachi bu’, which translates as ‘eat until you are only 80 % full’.

Scientists refer to this way of eating as ‘caloric restrictions’. No-one knows exactly why it works, but scientists believe it D_____ that there is the danger of famine. This in turn E_____ and so may lead to better preservation and slower aging.

«It’s a stark contrast with the cultural habits that drive food consumption in F____ » says Mr. Willcox. If we look at high streets and supermarkets in most other countries, you will see that he is right. Restaurants offer all-you-can-eat menus and supersize portions. Supermarkets are full of special offers encouraging us to buy more food than we need.

1. make it a healthy diet

2. other parts of the world

3. four times higher than the average

4. have a cultural tradition

5. sends a signal to the body

6. the rest of the population

7. makes the body protect itself

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
3	6	4	5	7	2

Task 45

Beaches of Portugal

 Covering more than 850 km, the Portuguese coast boasts such a large number of fine, white sandy beaches that it is almost impossible to keep count. All bathed by the Atlantic Ocean and all different, their beauty is hard to describe, so there is nothing better A _____.

The most famous are in the Algarve. With three thousand hours of sun per year and warm waters, there are beaches to suit every taste and many dreamlike resorts. The choices are many, from sandy stretches extending as far as the eye can see B ______, the trade image of the region. They are always accompanied by a calm clear sea, C_____.

In Costa da Caparica, the beaches are particularly dear to Lisbonites D _____ for sun and sea bathing. There are deserted beaches here too, of a wild beauty, E ____ nature. In the centre, tourists will find very wide sandy stretches, to which traditional fishing adds a picturesque touch. And further north, the colder waters and the invigorating sea are tempered by the welcoming atmosphere and the clean air of the mountains and the forests.

Despite all their differences, all beaches share one thing – quality. They are safe and offer a wide range of support and recreational services, F ____. And a large number of Portuguese beaches are granted the European blue flag every year, a distinction that is a sign of their excellent conditions.

1. where one can enjoy close contact with

2. which meet every need of their users

3. than to discover them once for oneself

4. who has never been to this wonderful city

5. which is ideal for various water sports

6. to the smaller coves, sheltered by huge cliffs

7. who have different options around the capital

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
3	6	5	7	1	2

Task 46

The Joy of Reading

 Have you ever wondered why people read? Why reading is one of the few things A _____ for thousands of years? Even before reading became available to the general public, stories were told around campfires, passed down from generation to generation.

First of all, stories are a good way to escape from your ordinary life, to get immersed in another world, if only for a little time. While reading, you can imagine yourself in different situations B _____, but in the moment that doesn’t matter. Whether you’re suffering from depression or are just bored, reading is a great distraction.

Similarly, another reason people are attracted to stories, is because they are lonely, very often they feel as if they are the only ones in the world C _____. Identifying with a fictional character can make a big difference in helping a person understand D _____.

Other people read because it can be a good way to relax. It can be very nice to sit down and enjoy a good plot unfold, to watch the actions of fictional characters from the side, and to see the consequences of these actions, E ____.

Lastly, people read because it is the easiest way to gain knowledge in a certain area. Instead of finding a teacher, you can just find a book, sit down, and spend a few hours reading. This way you can study wherever you want, whenever you want F _____.

There are countless books in the world, and whoever you are, whatever you’re feeling, there is definitely a book out there, just waiting for you to discover it.

1. try to avoid the boredom of life

2. that has consistently remained part of society

3. that they are not alone

4. going through something difficult

5. without having to bear any responsibility

6. that range from unlikely to impossible

7. at your own pace

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
2	6	4	3	5	7

Task 47

Peter and Paul Fortress

 The Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg, located on small Hare Island, is the historic core of the city. The history of St. Petersburg begins with the history of the fortress.

Since 1700 Russia had been fighting the Northern War against Sweden. By 1703 the lands by the Neva River were conquered. To protect them from the attacks of the Swedes it was necessary to build a strong outpost here. The fortress was founded on Hare Island 16 (27) May, 1703 by joint plan of Peter I and French engineer Joseph-Gaspard Lambert de Guerin. This day is well known A____.

The fortress stretches from west to east with six bastions B____. The Peter’s Gate on the east side, C____, has remained since the time of Peter I. The Peter and Paul Cathedral, D____ emperors and the monument of Russian baroque, was completed after the death of the emperor, in 1733. The weathervane as a golden angel with a cross, E____, is one of the main symbols of the city. On the opposite side of the cathedral, there is the Mint building, constructed in the time of Paul I by architect A. Porto. Coinage was moved to the fortress F____ in the time of Peter I. The Peter and Paul Fortress has never directly participated in any fighting. From the very beginning of its existence it was used as a political prison. Since 1924 the Peter and Paul Fortress has been a part of the Museum of the History of St. Petersburg.

1. as the day of the birth of St. Petersburg

2. which was designed by D. Trezzini

3. which was the burial place of Russian

4. and reminding of the rich history of the city

5. as the most protected part of the city

6. which is located on the spire of the cathedral

7. that are located at the corners

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
1	7	2	3	6	5

Task 48

Surviving in a Desert

 A desert is defined as a place that gets less than 250 mm of rain each year. It differs sharply from the climate of a rain forest, A _____.

Arid desert lands cover about one third of the earth’s surface. Most deserts are covered with sand, B _____. There are also usually a lot of rocky areas. This combination of sand and rock means that the soil is not very fertile. C ____, some living things are able to do well in this setting. Many plants have changed and developed in ways D____. These changes have become apparent in a number of ways. Some plants are able to grow very quickly E____. They turn green and produce flowers within just a few days. Other desert plants simply stop growing in very dry weather. They appear to be dead, but when the rain returns, they come back to life and begin growing again.

Desert animals have also developed many characteristics that help them to survive in arid environment. Camels can go for a very long time without drinking. Other animals, such as snakes and rats, find cool places to sleep during the day and come out only at night. The extremely long ears of desert rabbits help them F_____. Changes like these have allowed some animals and plants to grow and develop successfully in a very challenging ecological system: the desert.

There are countless books in the world, and whoever you are, whatever you’re feeling, there is definitely a book out there, just waiting for you to discover it.

1. which is often in the form of hills called sand dunes

2. whenever it rains

3. to find water as far as 25 metres away

4. which can receive up to 10,000 mm of rain annually

5. to better distribute their body heat and stay cool

6. even though the desert environment is very dry and hot

7. that help them to live in the desert

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
4	1	6	7	2	5

Task 49

Nevsky Prospect

 Nevsky Prospect is the main and most famous street of St. Petersburg. The unique architectural ensemble of Nevsky Prospect was formed during the 18th – early 20th centuries. It starts from the bank of the Neva River, runs through the centre of the city and ends at the Neva River. The whole history of St. Petersburg can be seen in the history of the avenue. Nevsky Prospect is 4.5 km long and 25-60 m wide. The narrowest section is located from the Admiralty to the Moika River, A_____.

After the construction of the Admiralty in 1704 and the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in 1710, it was decided to build a road B_____ each other and with the Novgorod Path, which was used by Russian merchants. The construction began on both sides at the same time, the roads were laid through the wood, and in 1760s they were connected into one road, C_____, but with a turn at the Vosstaniya Square. Nevsky Prospect got its name only in 1783. The road was paved with cobble stones, D_____. It was the first street in St. Petersburg with gas lighting. By the early 20th century Nevsky Prospect had become the financial centre of Russia E____ had their offices there.

Nowadays, Nevsky Prospect is the centre of cultural and social life of St. Petersburg. There are museums, theatres, exhibition halls, cinemas, restaurants, cafés, shops F____.

1. and hotels there or nearby the avenue

2. showing the original width of the avenue

3. which was not as straight as it was planned

4. which were built by famous architects and

5. connecting these two important structures with

6. and a few rows of trees were planted along the street

7. as the 40 largest banks of Russia, Europe and America

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
2	5	3	6	7	1

Task 50

Whales in a Noisy Ocean

Whales use sound in very different ways. Some whales produce songs that travel over vast distances. They also use echolocation, like bats, A _____. But other noise in the ocean creates a problem for the whales.

Since 1987, the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) has sent their research vessel Song of the Whale around the world B _____. During the travels, the Song of the Whale scientists have developed expertise C ____ to listen to and record the sounds that the animals make. Thishelps them to track, identify, and survey different species.

One of the threats facing whales and other marine animals is noise pollution in the seas, such as noise from drilling, military activities, oil exploration, and coastal construction. This noise can cause great distress to whales and dolphins and can D _____.

It is feared this noise pollution may cause mass strandings, E _____. If the Song of the Whale team can F ____, then hopefully the nature and location of disturbing noise can be changed.

1. in using underwater microphones

2. to locate food and find their way

3. result in injury and even death

4. track and identify their habitats

5. to filter out food from the water

6. to provide a platform for marine research

7. when large numbers come ashore

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
2	6	1	3	7	4

Task 51

Unique nature of Kamchatka

Kamchatka is a peninsula located in the north-eastern part of Russia. It is surrounded with the Okhotskoye Sea, the Beringovo Sea and the Pacific Ocean. This region has a very unique environment A_____ one is looking for picturesque views, unforgettable travels and unity with nature.

Kamchatka is famous for its volcanoes, B_____. Volcanoes are represented on Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, the most eastern city in the northern hemisphere, coat of arms as well. There are more than 300 volcanoes

in Kamchatka, from 28 up to 36 of them are active, or potentially active. Kamchatka volcanoes are included in the list of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

The region is also known C____ — rivers and lakes. Many Kamchatka rivers spring from mountain tops and glaciers, that is why they are very clean, and it is wonderful for those D_____. In general, there are up to 14 thousand rivers and streams, 100 thousand lakes and 414 glaciers in Kamchatka.

Kamchatka is a home to the Valley of Geysers, E_____ geysers in the world, after Icelandic geyser fields. It is not easily accessible, as long as it is too unique to be opened for tourists all the time. The Valley of Geysers’ ecosystem is very vulnerable, F_____ and regulate the visiting. In fact, the larger part of Kamchatka is preserved. There are many nature reserves and nature parks in Kamchatka.

1. which are depicted on most souvenirs there

2. so it is necessary to monitor it all the time

3. who love fishing, including Kamchatka bears

4. which has the second largest concentration of

5. to be a place of many water sources

6. to be a popular nature reserve and health resort

7. that makes it a place to visit when

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
7	1	5	3	4	2

Task 52

The life of Pi

 «The Life of Pi» published in 2001 is the third book by the Canadian author Yann Martel. It has A_____, won several prizes and been translated into forty-one languages.

At the start of the book, we B____ in India. His father owns the city zoo and the family home is in the zoo. When they aren’t at school, Pi and his brother help their father at the zoo and he learns a lot about animals.

When Pi is sixteen, his parents decide to close the zoo and move to Canada. They travel by ship taking the animals with them. On the way, there is C_____. Sadly, Pi’s family and the sailors all die in the storm, but Pi lives and finds himself in a lifeboat with a hyena, zebra, orangutan and an enormous tiger. At first, Pi is scared of the animals and jumps into the ocean. Then he remembers there are sharks in the water and decides to climb back into the lifeboat. One by one, the animals in the lifeboat kill and eat each other, till only Pi and the tiger are left alive. Luckily for Pi, there is D_____, but he soon needs to start catching fish. He feeds the tiger to stop it killing and eating him. He also uses a whistle and E_____ and show it that he’s the boss.

Pi and the tiger spend 227 days in the lifeboat. They live through terrible storms and the burning heat of the Pacific sun. They are often hungry and ill. Finally, they arrive at the coast of Mexico, but you will have to F_____ in the end!

1. read the book to find out what happens

2. some food and water on the lifeboat

3. his knowledge of animals to control the tiger

4. received an award for being strong

5. sold seven million copies worldwide

6. learn about Pi’s childhood in Pondicherry

7. a terrible storm and the ship sinks

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
5	6	7	2	3	1

Task 53

Santa Claus

The man we know as Santa Claus has a history all to his own. Today, he is thought of mainly as the jolly man in red, but his story A_____ the 3rd century to a monk named St. Nicholas. It is believed that Nicholas was born sometime around 280 AD in modern-day Turkey. Much admired for his kindness, St. Nicholas B_____. It is said that he gave away all of his inherited wealth and traveled the countryside helping the poor and sick. Over the course of many years, Nicholas’s popularity spread and he became known as the protector of children and sailors. His feast day C_____ his death, December 6. This was traditionally considered a lucky day to make large purchases or to get married. By the Renaissance, St. Nicholas was the most popular saint in Europe.

St. Nicholas first D______ at the end of the 18th century. The name Santa Claus evolved from a Dutch shortened form of Sint Nikolaas. As his popularity grew, Sinter Klaas was described as everything from a jocker with a blue three-cornered hat, red waistcoat, and yellow stockings to a man wearing a broad-brimmed hat and a huge pair of Flemish trousers.

In the 19th centuries big stores E_____ using images of the newly-popular Santa Claus. In 1841, thousands of children visited a Philadelphia shop to see a life-size Santa Claus model. It F_____ before stores began to attract children, and their parents, with the lure of a peek at the “real-life” Santa Claus with his famous white beard and red gown.

1. began to advertise Christmas shopping

2. became the subject of many legends

3. began dressing up unemployed men in

4. is celebrated on the anniversary of

5. was only a matter of time

6. stretches all the way back to

7. appeared in American popular culture

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
6	2	4	7	1	5

Task 54

Welcome to the Smithsonian

When you visit any of the Smithsonian’s 19 museums and galleries or the National zoo, you are entering the largest museum complex in the world. This complex holds about 137 million unique objects in its trust for the American people.

The Smithsonian was established in 1846 with funds given to the United States by James Smithson, an English scientist. The main idea was to increase and spread knowledge for free. And now all Smithsonian institutions are still devoted to public education, A__________ history.

Ten Smithsonian museums and galleries are located in the centre of the U.S. capital. Six other museums and the National zoo are nearby in the Washington metropolitan area, B__________.

The 19th and the newest museum C__________ is the National Museum of African American history and culture. It is now operating in the form of a virtual museum. Its key feature is the memory book, D__________. These diverse memories are linked to each other and to the museum content, E__________.

The Smithsonian complex is home to the world’s foremost research centres in science, the arts and the humanities. Besides the basic research F__________, there are a number of special facilities. Conservation centre at the zoo studies rare and endangered species, environment centre carries out research in ecosystems in the coastal area.

1. that is carried on regularly in each of the museums

2. providing different materials in the arts, science and

3. placing a spotlight on people and events in African American history

4. that has been established within the Smithsonian complex

5. which allows website visitors to upload their own stories or images

6. and visitors can enjoy watching rare exhibits on

7. and two museums are situated in New York City

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
2	7	4	5	3	1

Task 55

National Gallery of Art

 The National Gallery of Art was created in Washington D.C. for the people of the United States in 1937. It started with the gift of the financier and art collector A__________. His gift also included a building to house the new museum, to be constructed on the National Mall. Opened to the public in 1941, this grand building, B__________, was at the time the largest marble structure in the world.

The newly created National Gallery soon attracted similar gifts from hundreds of other collectors. This tradition of generosity continues to this day with gifts from private donors and artists C__________.

The gallery’s East building contains the collection of modern and contemporary painting, sculpture, D__________. The East and West buildings are connected by an underground tunnel with a moving walkway.

The National Gallery enjoys federal support, E__________, to fulfill its mission to exhibit and interpret great works of European and American art in the nation’s collection. Since its founding, federal funds have fostered the protection and care of the art collection and have supported the gallery’s work, ensuring F__________. Private funding helped to create a renowned collection of works of art and to construct the two landmark buildings. Private support makes possible to arrange a changing programme of special exhibitions.

1. which is now called the West building

2. that the gallery brings daily profit to the country

3. who are willing to share their possessions with the public

4. who presented old master paintings and sculptures to the country

5. as well as partnership with private organizations

6. that the gallery is open daily and free of charge

7. as well as an advanced research centre and an art library

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
4	1	3	7	5	6

Task 56

Healthy school meals

Children at Southdown Infants School in Bath enjoy tasty homemade meals such as roast turkey with fresh vegetables, chicken, salad and fresh fruit for pudding. Vegetables are A ____________. Instead of crisps, chocolate and sweets, the school canteen serves organic carrots, dried fruit and fresh seasonal fruit in bags for 10p, B ______________.

Southdown’s healthy eating initiative began four years ago with the start of a breakfast club.

Now Ms Culley, the head teacher of the school, says that the teachers very clearly see the link between diet and concentration. “Children’s concentration and behaviour C ______________.” The teachers would also like to give the children the experience of eating together. It turned out that some children weren’t used to that.

Pupils are also encouraged to find out more about where their food comes from by  D ______________.

Parents are also involved and are invited in to try school dinners on special occasions, E _______________.

The efforts of staff, pupils and parents to create a healthy eating environment were recognized earlier this month F ______________ the Best School Dinner award.

Ms Culley said: “We are happy to win this award. Healthy eating is at the centre of everything we do. It’s really rewarding to see so many children enjoy real food.”

1. such as Easter and Christmas

2. visiting a local farm

3. local, fresh and organic where possible

4. provide good quality food

5. definitely improve after a good meal

6. and about 100 bags are sold each day

7. when the school was awarded

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
3	6	5	2	1	7

Task 57

Walking is not enough to keep fit

Walking may not be enough on its own to produce significant health benefits, research suggests. A team from Canada’s University of Alberta compared a 10,000-step exercise programme with a more traditional fitness regime of moderate intensity. Researchers found improvements A _______ were significantly higher in the second group. They told an American College of Sports Medicine meeting that gentle exercise was B __________. In total 128 people took C _________. The researchers assessed influence on fitness by measuring blood pressure and lung capacity. They found out the 10,000-step programme did help to get people motivated – and was an excellent way to start D _________. But to increase the effectiveness, some intensity must be added to their exercise. “Across your day, while you are achieving those 10,000 steps, take 200 to 400 of them at a faster pace. You’ve got to do more than light exercise and include regular moderate activity, and don’t be shy to have an occasional period of time at an energetic level.” The researchers were concerned there was too much focus E __________, rather than on its intensity.

Professor Stuart Biddle, an expert in exercise science at the University of Loughborough, said it was possible that the current guidelines on how much exercise to take were set too low. “However, you have got to find F ____. The harder you make it, the fewer people will actually do it.” Professor Biddle said there was no doubt that energetic exercise was the way to get fit, but volume rather than intensity might be more useful in tackling issues such as obesity.

1. part in the project

2. taking exercise

3. gave marked health benefits

4. in fitness levels

5. on simply getting people to take exercise

6. not enough to get fit

7. a compromise between physiology and psychology

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
4	6	1	2	5	7

Task 58

Double-decker Bus

A double-decker bus is a bus that has two levels. While double-decker long-distance buses are in widespread use around the world, A ____. Double-decker buses are popular in some European cities and in some parts of Asia, usually in former British colonies. Many towns around the world have a few that specialize in short sight-seeing tours for tourists because, as William Gladstone observed, «the way to see London is from the top of a ‘bus'».

Double-decker buses are taller than other buses. They are extensively used in the United Kingdom, B _____, removed from normal service in December 2005 — they still operate on heritage routes. Elsewhere in Europe, double-deckers are used throughout the Dublin Bus network in Ireland, where they are making a comeback on Dublin’s outer suburban routes and also the streets of Cork, Limerick, Galway and Waterford. They are a common sight in Berlin, where the BVG makes extensive use of them. Double-decker long-distance coaches are also in widespread use throughout Europe.

Most buses in Hong Kong and about half in Singapore are double-deckers as well. The only areas in North America that C _____ are the western Canadian province of British Columbia and the United States city of Las Vegas. They are currently being tested in Ottawa on the express routes. The city of Davis, California, in the United States uses vintage double-decker buses for public transport. Davis, California is also home to the first vintage double-decker bus converted from diesel gasoline to run on CNG. The city of Victoria, BC, the city of Vancouver, British Columbia, and a couple of others use Dennis Tridents. A few are also used as tour buses, especially in New York. Double-deckers are have also been used in Mumbai since 1937.

In Brazil, D _____, some companies use double-decker buses. Double-deckers are not a good option for use outside the towns (most roads in Brazil are in very poor condition), and E _____.

Double-decker buses are in widespread use in India in many of the major cities. Some double-decker buses F _____, with no roof and shallow sides. These are popular for sightseeing tours.

1. double-deckers are adored by thousands of tourists

2. use double-decker buses for public transport

3. double-decker city buses are less common

4. where perhaps the most famous was the London Routemaster

5. their use is being discouraged by transportation authorities

6. have an open upper deck

7. where buses are sometimes the only interstate transport

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
3	4	2	7	5	6

Task 59

Natural Links In a Long Chain of Being

I believe we are not alone.

Even if I am on the other side of the world from the farmhouse I live in, I still dream of the ancient vines out the window, and the shed out back that my grandfather’s father built in 1870 with eucalyptus trunks. As long as I can recreate these images, A ____. 

All of us need some grounding in our modern world of constant moving, buying, selling, meeting and leaving. Some find constancy in religion, others in friends or community. But we need some daily signposts that we are not different, not better, B ____. 

For me, this house, farm, these ancient vines are those roots. Although I came into this world alone and will leave alone, I am not alone. 

There are ghosts of dozens of conversations in the hallways, stories I remember about buying new plows that now rust in the barnyard and ruined crops from the same vines C ____. 

All of us are natural links in a long chain of being, and that I need to know what time of day it is, what season is coming, whether the wind is blowing north or from the east, and if the moon is still full tomorrow night, D _____. 

The physical world around us constantly changes, E _____. We must struggle in our brief existence to find some transcendent meaning and so find relief in the knowledge F _____.

You may find that too boring, living with the past as present. I find it refreshing. There is an old answer to every new problem, that wise whispers of the past are with us. If we just listen and remember, we are not alone; we have been here before.

1. I never quite leave home

2. but human nature does not

3. that we are now harvesting

4. but we as well as our heart did not

5. not worse than those who came before us

6. just as the farmers who came before me did

7. that our ancestors have gone through this before

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
1	5	3	6	2	7

Task 60

The Show Begins

My Uncle Jim took me to all the Broadway shows in New York City, and I was star struck! Actually he wasn’t my real uncle – that’s just what we called him. He was a close friend of my parents. He was a bit stocky with red hair, A _________.

I remember the theaters on Broadway, B __________. The curtains were made of this real heavy, dark red material. There were huge chandelier lights hanging from the ceiling. The walls were dark, paneled wood. The seats were red and cushy C __________.

The orchestra sat at the base of the stage in a pit. I usually went down to the front to see the musicians D __________. They were all crammed into such a tiny space. I played the flute myself and my dad kept encouraging me that if I kept it up, E ___________. But truly, I didn’t want to be tucked away down there. I wanted to be on top, front and center.

Most people dressed rather finely, and certain fragrances took center stage as various women passed by. The sounds of the audience F __________ at their seats were clearly heard while last minute patrons filled in. There was electricity in the air and then the lights would go down and up, and you knew it was time for the show to get started. The lights dimmed. The music began. And you were swept up into a whole new world. I loved it!

1. I could be playing down there someday

2. and set real close together

3. which were so old and posh

4. and he had a beard and moustache

5. I wasn’t that good at music

6. getting ready and warming up

7. laughing and chattering away

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
4	3	2	6	1	7

Task 61

Scouting moves ahead

The Scout Movement, which is also known as the Boy Scouts has changed massively in more than 100 years, though many people do not realise this.

For many people in Britain the word “scouting” evokes images of boys in short trousers A__________. Many people imagine that the Scout Association and its female counterpart the Guides Association are old-fashioned. They think these associations are for people B__________ than the future, people who just like camping in the rain and washing in cold water.

It’s quite easy to understand why Scouts and Guides have this sort of image. The “Boy Scouts” were founded over 100 years ago by Robert Baden-Powell, a retired English army general; the “Girl Guides” followed three years later. They were organised in an almost military manner. Young people had to learn discipline and how to do things as a group. They C__________ in difficult conditions, learnt to make campfires and, yes, they certainly had to get used to washing in cold water. In those days though, that D__________ many people washed in cold water.

Nevertheless, even at the start, there was much more to scouting than that. Scouts and Guides also learned the value of solidarity. Right from the start, they had to cope with difficult situations, E__________, and play a useful part in society. Baden-Powell’s organisations were inclusive, and never exclusive; any young person could become a Scout or a Guide, regardless of race, background or religion.

Though the Scout and Guide movements began in England, they soon spread to other countries, and within 50 years, scouting F__________ with young people all over the world.

1. who are more interested in the past

2. and girls in blue uniforms

3. that were generally better

4. was not particularly unusual as

5. went on camping expeditions

6. interact with other people

7. had become a popular activity

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
2	1	5	4	6	7

Task 62

Skip the sun, get a glow the healthy way

Everyone at some point has wanted a “healthy glow,” whether it’s a must-have for summer, or a vacation, the thought of tan skin has crossed the minds of millions. If you are pale, it A__________. There is wild excitement when after a day in the sun your skin is tan, not burnt. Surely everyone is familiar with the famous conversation upon the realization that you got fried at the beach. Your friends reassure you with “Don’t worry it B__________.” It may all seem like fun and games at the time, but alarming new research C__________.

Some tan-seekers do it the old-fashioned way, grab a towel and hit the pool or beach. Recently, millions of young girls D__________ instead. Regardless of how the tan is achieved, any change in skin coloring is evidence of skin cell damage. This can lead to cancer. According to the Skin Cancer Foundation, melanoma, or skin cancer, among people aged 18 to 39 has risen dramatically. In the United States the number of skin cancer cases due to tanning, is higher than the number of lung cancer cases due to smoking.

While it is true that being outside and active is great for your body and the sun does provide vitamin D, everyone’s health still needs protecting. However, it’s E__________, limit time spent in direct sunlight, between the hours of 10 a.m. and 4 p.m., and wear sunscreen at all times. A fashionable option is the sun hat: both elegant and fun. Big floppy hats may seem ridiculous at first, but F__________.

Another advice is to look into sunless tanners: They are cheap and in no way endanger the lives of users. So, fake it, don’t bake it!

1. takes a lot of time and effort to tan

2. have been turning to tanning beds

3. they are actually quite classy accessories

4. better to avoid indoor tanning

5. have inspired people to get their skin checked

6. will eventually turn into a tan

7. has taken the healthy out of healthy glow

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
1	6	7	2	4	3

Task 63

Grant-making agency

The National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) is an independent grant-making agency of the United States government. Established in 1965, it is one of the largest sources of grant funds for humanities projects and programs in the U.S. NEH promotes knowledge of the history, thought, and culture, not only of the United States, A__________.

NEH grants facilitate research and original scholarship, strengthen teaching and learning in the humanities in American schools and colleges, give opportunities for citizens to engage in lifelong learning, B__________.

The Endowment is directed by a chairman, C__________ and confirmed by the U.S. Senate for a term of four years. Advising the chairman is the National Council on the Humanities, a board of 26 distinguished private citizens D__________ with the advice of the Senate. The National Council members serve six-year terms.

NEH grants are typically awarded to U.S. cultural institutions, such as museums, archives, libraries, colleges, universities, and public television and radio stations, E__________. Eligibility is limited to U.S. non-profit institutions and to U.S. citizens and foreigners F__________ prior to the time of application. Grants are awarded through a competitive process. The chairman takes into account the advice provided by the review process and, by law, makes all funding decisions.

1. who is appointed by the president

2. but of other countries of the world

3. but in every aspect of social sciences

4. who are also appointed by the president

5. who have been living in the U.S. for three years

6. as well as to individual scholars of the humanities

7. as well as provide access to cultural and educational resources

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
2	7	1	4	6	5

Task 64

The Bonfire Night

The 5th of November has always had a very special place in my heart. More important than New Year’s Eve, but probably less important than the Olympics ceremonies, the 5th of November every year is A __________ all over the country to go wild!

The night of the 5th is often cold and damp and parents wrap up their children in layers of jumpers, coats, hats, scarves and gloves. They fuss over the littlest B __________ aren’t scared. They comfort their pets and give them a safe place to curl up inside, away from the cacophony about to start outside.

Outside the bonfire is C __________ up your nose. If you’re lucky, there might be some pumpkin soup left over from Halloween to warm you up, because in spite of all the layers and the excitement, you’ll still need warming up until the bonfire gets going!

When it’s absolutely dark and the bonfire is blazing, the children and parents huddle together in groups, staring up at the sky. What are they waiting for? The screech of the first firework deafens them all and D __________. The “oohs” and “aaahs” of the crowd keep perfect time with the “kabooms” of the rockets. With every firework that lights up the sky, parents watch the delight grow on their children’s faces and sigh with relief.

After the grand finale, they make their way home with the noises still echoing in their ears. An extra special treat E __________! Waving them through the chilly air, spelling out names and drawing pictures, even the oldest members of the family remember how to be kids!

This is what the 5th of November means to me. Every year, it F __________ such bright and colourful fireworks and heard such loud bangs. I really hope I never grow out of it!

1. differences in traditions

2. children and hope that they

3. the day for fireworks lovers

4. the explosion lights up the sky

5. feels like the first time I’ve seen

6. waits at home though: sparklers

7. lit and the smell of smoke creeps

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
3	2	7	4	6	5

Task 65

Earth-sheltered homes

Earth-sheltered or simply underground homes are one of those creations by man, which brings him closer to nature. Unlike the normal traditional houses that A __________, these earth-sheltered homes are built using the shelter of the ground. Earth-sheltered homes can be easily made in hilly areas.

The basic idea behind the construction of such a house is that they are built with the idea of B ________ and each of these homes is built entirely different from each other.

The construction of these homes is usually done according to the shape of the area where the house is built. Their designs C ________ to the nature. The early earth houses which were initially built lacked windows. Modern day earth-sheltered homes though have windows as well as any other facility that the people living there might require.

Some of the major benefits of earth-sheltered homes are that they are naturally insulating. This makes them cool in the summer and cozy and warm in the winter. Another advantage D __________ and are well protected from earthquakes as well as wind-storms. Many earth-sheltered homes are also defended against intruders since there is usually only one entry.

As everything has its pros and cons, earth-sheltered homes also do. The interior decoration of these homes, like placing the furniture or huge paintings, E __________. These homes also have dark spaces inside and for this reason, lots of lighting is essential.

Earth-sheltered homes are one of the greenest housing designs that combines Mother Nature with eco-friendly F __________.

1. are built on the ground

2. are usually very organic

3. is being built facing south

4. being environmentally friendly

5. building materials and lifestyle

6. is that these homes are safe from fire

7. can be difficult due to the construction

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
1	4	2	6	7	5

Task 66

Australia

Australia is one of the world’s most ethnically diverse nations. Nearly a quarter of the people who live in Australia A __________. They come from the United Kingdom and other European countries, but also from China, Vietnam, North Africa, and the Middle East.

First people arrived in Australia about 50,000 years ago. They B __________ land bridges when sea levels were lower. The next to land in Australia were Dutch explorers. They came in 1606. In 1788 the British began to settle there. Many settlers C __________ as punishment. For a short time, the newcomers lived peacefully with the Aboriginal people.

In 1851, gold was discovered in Australia. A rush to find riches brought D __________ 1859, six separate colonies were created which later became part of the British Commonwealth.

Australian culture is founded on stories of battlers, bushrangers and brave soldiers. Today E __________ its Aboriginal heritage, vibrant mix of cultures, innovative ideas and a thriving ecosystem.

Australia’s ecosystem is an unusual one because of its remote location. As a result, there are F __________ and nowhere else in the world, such as kangaroo and koala.

One of Australia’s most amazing sites rises like an enormous whale’s back from a flat desert called the Red Center. It is a sacred natural formation at the heart of the country and the largest rock in the world!

1. Australia is one of the most

2. were born in other countries

3. Australia also defines itself by

4. many animal species that occur here

5. may have travelled from Asia across

6. thousands of new immigrants, and by

7. were criminals sent to live in Australia

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
2	5	7	6	3	4

Task 67

Living nature in Madeira

Right in the middle of the Atlantic, the islands of Madeira and Porto Santo are a haven of natural beauty. The exotic colours of the flowers stand out from among the blue sea and the emerald green vegetation. This is an archipelago where the big territory is a protected area and A __________ is located.

The Madeira Natural Park was created in 1982 to preserve this vast natural heritage, a worldwide rarity. The park is classified as a Biogenetic Reserve, B __________, with some rare species such as the mountain orchid, unique in the world, and also some exotic large trees. To visit this park is to discover Nature! The park covers about two-thirds of the island, making Madeira a truly ecological destination.

The springtime temperature, C __________, cries out for open air activities. Visitors can go for a walk in the park, visit the city of Funchal or roam freely around the island. Boat rides are an excellent way of D __________. In such a naturally welcoming environment, balance and well-being are taken for granted. Madeira offers various tourist complexes E __________.

Popular feasts, F __________, are opportunities to appreciate traditional gastronomic flavours and see Madeira partying, especially for the Carnival parades, the Flower festival, the Atlantic festival and, above all, the end-of-year fireworks display.

1. which is felt all year round

2. which take place in Madeira all year round

3. where the largest laurel forest in the world

4. admiring the coastline from a different perspective

5. where one can find a unique range of flora and fauna

6. choosing this holiday destination for its natural beauty

7. that have prime conditions for boating and scuba diving

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
3	5	1	4	7	2

Task 68

Wild animals in cities

Have you ever seen bears in Vancouver parks, leopards on the streets of Mumbai or wild pigs in gardens in Berlin? Recently, there A __________ on TV about big animals coming into towns and cities. What happens when wild animals come into our cities? Is it dangerous for us and the animals?

Wild animals usually come into cities to look for food. In Cape Town, South Africa, baboons sometimes come into the suburbs. They eat fruit from gardens and go into people’s kitchens and take food from cupboards and fridges! Baboons are B __________ children and fight with pet dogs. Many people do not like them, but the city can be dangerous for baboons too. Sometimes, baboons are C __________ human food can be very bad for their teeth. The city council in Cape Town has a team of Baboon Monitors whose job is to find baboons D ___________ to the countryside. This makes the city safer for people and is healthier for the baboons. However, the main problem is that a lot of baboons will come back to the city to find food again.

In Berlin, Germany, groups of wild pigs have come into the city for hundreds of years, but now the winters are warmer, there are even more pigs than in the past. Pigs eat flowers and plants and dig in gardens and parks in the city. They also E __________ accidents. Some city residents like the pigs and give them food. But the city council is worried about the traffic accidents, so they F __________ have put up fences to stop the pigs coming into the city.

1. cause lots of problems

2. in the city and take them back

3. walk in the street and cause traffic

4. hurt in car accidents and the sugar in

5. strong animals and sometimes they scare

6. have been many reports in newspapers and

7. have told people to stop giving the pigs food and

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
6	5	4	2	3	7

Task 69

Europe’s best hidden gems

There are incredible destinations in Europe known worldwide, such as Amsterdam and its canals, London and its museums, its shopping and atmosphere, or Paris, the City of Light. Europe also has thousands of hidden treasures. There is a wide selection of the finest unknown destinations in Europe, from Lugano in Switzerland  A __________.

Lugano is an international city, the crossroads and melting pot of European culture. It constitutes one of the most interesting regions to be discovered. Lugano is not only Switzerland’s third most important financial centre,  B __________ old buildings.

The area of Cinque Terre in Italy represents one of the best preserved natural sights of the Mediterranean. Human activity has contributed to creating a unique landscape in which the development of typical stone walls is so extensive C __________. All this, D __________, makes the Cinque Terre an increasingly popular location among Italian and foreign tourists.

Sintra is a jewel set between the mountains and the sea, waiting to be discovered by tourists E __________, luxuriant nature and cosmopolitan cultural offer. Sintra has a wonderful charm that left a deep impression on the soul and work of the writers F __________. Sintra is truly the capital of Romanticism. It is a place to be experienced by everyone!

1. but showed evidence of an early human housing

2. to Cinque Terre in Italy and Sintra in Portugal

3. as to equal that of the famous Great Wall of China

4. but also a town of parks and flowers, villas and

5. who want to be lost in its majestic historical heritage

6. combined with the beauty of a crystal clear sea

7. who pioneered the Romantic spirit in the eighteenth century

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
2	4	3	6	5	7

Task 70

Beautiful cities of Italy

The political and cultural centre of Italy is the ‘Eternal City’, Rome. Ever since the Roman Empire, as its capital, Rome has become famous as a centre of European culture. The most striking sights of Rome are, of course, the Colosseum and the Forum. Once the Colosseum was able to receive about 50 thousand spectators, A __________ and concert halls. The Pantheon, the old temple of all gods, B __________, is also located in Rome.

The second most important town in Italy is Milan. Milan is the capital of fashion and C __________, exhibitions and conferences. The main attraction of Milan is its Cathedral Square, where the monument to the King Victor Emmanuel II is installed. Theatre fans will not be left disappointed by visiting the Theatre of La Scala.

The most popular city among tourists is Venice. The city is unique because it has more than 120 islands, D __________ and 400 bridges. Venice has been known for more than fifteen hundred years, and for E __________. The main area of the city is Saint Mark’s Square with the Cathedral of San Marco. One of the most beautiful buildings in Venice is the Palace of Doges. The other famous attraction is the Grand Canal F______.

In addition to this, there are such beautiful cities in Italy as Naples, Turin, Florence, Genoa, Pisa and the islands of Sardinia and Sicily. All of them are outstanding places to visit.

1. that is the largest in Venice

2. which was built in the early I century

3. that everyone is dreaming about this trip

4. which is comparable with modern stadiums

5. which are сonnected by more than 150 canals

6. the venue for major international festivals

7. that time it produced a lot of attractions

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
4	2	6	5	7	1

Task 71

City of fountains

 Peterhof is a monument of world architecture and palace and park art. Peterhof includes a palace and park ensemble of the 18-19th centuries, A__________. Peterhof is a city of fountains as it contains 173 fountains and 4 cascades B__________. Each year up to 3 million people come here to enjoy the splendour of numerous fountains and the unique parks of Peterhof.

The name Peterhof was first mentioned in 1705. It was a coastal manor, close to which the construction of a grand country residence began. The original plan belonged to Peter the Great. After the brilliant victory of Russian troops over the Swedes, security of St. Petersburg both from the land C__________. Since that time, the construction of the Peterhof residence grew immensely in scope.

According to the plan of Peter the Great, on the one hand, Peterhof was meant to be equal in splendour with the most famous royal residences in Europe, D__________ to access the Baltic Sea. Both were successfully done. The Great Palace was built on a natural hill here, E__________. Following the plan of Peter the Great, F__________, the Grand Cascade with the famous Samson fountain was constructed. This is still one of the most spectacular fountains in the world. In 1990 the palaces and parks of Peterhof were included in the list of the world heritage of UNESCO.

1. and from the sea has been firmly ensured

2. which is a former royal countryside residence

3. who designs many royal residences in Europe

4. and then rebuilt in the baroque style in the 18th century

5. who wanted to decorate the main entrance with waterfalls

6. that are located in the park on the coast of the Gulf of Finland

7. and on the other hand, to become a monument of Russia’s struggle

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
2	6	1	7	4	5

Task 72

Sights of Sochi

 Sochi is unique among other Russian cities because it has many aspects of a subtropical resort. Apart from the scenic Caucasus Mountains, pebble and sand beaches, the city attracts tourists with its vegetation, numerous parks, monuments, and extravagant architecture. About two million people visit Greater Sochi each summer, A__________. The famous Caucasian Biosphere Reserve, B__________, lies just north from the city.

Popularity of Sochi among tourists is largely explained by the beauty of its surroundings. Walking along the river Agura, everyone will admire the nature around, C__________, and amazing waterfalls. From the bridge over the Agura opens a magnificent view to the lowest Agura waterfall. In the shady Agura gorge tourists will feel the gentle coolness, D__________.

Akhun Mountain the biggest in the region has a beautiful tower on the top. The height of the tower is more than 30 metres, E__________ are stunning. The observation platform on the top of the tower gives a chance to take superb pictures of the city. Every year thousands of people visit this stone tower, F__________ the perfect view of the Black Sea coast and the Caucasus Mountains. It is a truly unforgettable experience. Tourists will enjoy visiting all the sights and the resort itself, full of exotic green and the boundless blue of the Black Sea. 

1. and the views that open from it

2. which is built on the top to give visitors

3. when the subtropical resort is almost empty

4. which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site

5. enjoying the sound of birds singing and waterfalls gurgling

6. when the city is home to the annual film festival “Kinotavr”

7. including high cliffs, exotic vegetation, breathtaking canyons

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
6	4	7	5	1	2

Task 73

Saint Petersburg

 A city of palaces and museums, broad avenues and narrow canals, St. Petersburg’s short history is rich in architectural and artistic treasures. Alongside world-famous attractions such as the Hermitage and St. Isaac’s Cathedral, the city has a lot of equally interesting buildings A__________. St. Petersburg is considered to be Russia’s cultural capital. It reflects the country’s extraordinary fate like no other city.

St. Petersburg is a relatively young city, by both Russian and European standards, as B__________. Despite its short life, the city has a rich history. From the early days of Peter the Great to modern times, the city has always bustled with life and intrigue.

Lying across the delta of the Neva River, St. Petersburg, the Venice of the North, is a city C__________, some of which are well-known for their unique history. Bridges are an essential part of the city’s architectural make-up. Among the city’s over 500 bridges, there are numerous technological masterpieces. The centre of the city offers vast areas of green space, D__________.

St. Petersburg is a beautiful and fascinating holiday destination and one E__________. Whether to visit the city in a romantic and snowy Russian winter F__________, visitors will be spellbound by 
St. Petersburg’s culture and beauty. 

1. that is built on hundreds of islands

2. or during the dazzling white nights in summer

3. it was only founded in 1703 by Tsar Peter the Great

4. or considering a variety of the trip accommodation offers

5. that reveal the mysterious and tragic genius of St. Petersburg

6. of the most intriguing and historically significant cities in Europe

7. including beautiful historic gardens and extensive leisure parks

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
5	3	1	7	6	2

Task 74

State Hermitage Museum

 The Hermitage is St. Petersburg’s most popular visitor attraction, and one of the world’s largest and most prestigious museums. It is a must-see for all first-time travellers to the city. With over 3 million items in its collection, it also rewards repeat visits, A__________ of the riches on offer here, from Impressionist masterpieces to fascinating Oriental treasures. It was estimated B__________ on display for just one minute. So many visitors prefer a guided tour to ensure C__________ highlights. Art-lovers, however, may find it more rewarding to seek out for themselves the works D__________.

The bulk of the Hermitage collection is housed in the Winter Palace, E__________. However, there are a number of other sites that constitute part of the Hermitage, including the recently opened Storage Facility in the north of St. Petersburg. It offers guided tours through some of the museum’s vast stocks. The magnificent General Staff Building opposite the Winter Palace is most famous for its central triumphal arch, F__________ Nevsky Prospekt. The General Staff Building contains a number of unique exhibitions. It includes the Modern European Art, probably the most visited section of the Hermitage with well-known collections of Picasso and Matisse, as well as a wealth of popular Impressionist paintings. 

1. that they are particularly interested in

2. that they have time to catch all the collection’s

3. and new-comers can only hope to get a brief taste

4. which brings pedestrians out on to Palace Square from

5. that one would need eleven years to view each exhibit

6. which was the official residence of the Russian emperors

7. and the exhibition was often visited by military historians

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
3	5	2	1	6	4

Task 75

Letniy Sad

 Letniy Sad (The Summer Garden) is a park ensemble, a monument of landscape art of the 18th century. Letniy Sad is the oldest park in St. Petersburg. The park was founded by Peter I in 1704. The Tsar dreamed of his own Versailles and drew its original plan himself. He planned to create a regular, architectural park with accurate layout and straight paths. Prominent architects and gardeners took part in its creation. The park was supposed to become a place of relaxation, A__________.

Letniy Sad is surrounded by water. Natural boundary of the park from the north and east are the Neva and Fontanka Rivers, B__________.

Peter I brought sculptures from Italy for the park and was very proud of them. In the 18th century there were more than two hundred sculptures, C__________, or moved to suburban royal residences and the Hermitage. Now Letniy Sad is decorated with 90 sculptures – copies made of artificial marble.

In May, 2012 Letniy Sad was opened after reconstruction. The reconstruction work had been going on for about three years, D__________ Letniy Sad as it was in the 18th century. Among the new items in Letniy Sad, there is the Archaeological Museum, E__________ during the restoration of the park. Visitors can take a tour of the park F__________ on Sundays. 

1. and restorers have done everything possible to keep

2. combining the features of urban and suburban estates

3. which are planned to be the centre of scientific research

4. which contains interesting objects found by archaeologists

5. but later many of them were either destroyed in the flood

6. and enjoy the exhibitions and performances of a brass band

7. and from the south and west – the Moika River and the Lebyazhiy Canal

Ответ	A	B	C	D	E	F
2	7	5	1	4	6

55

«Canadian Sign Language» redirects here. For French Canadian Sign Language, see Quebec Sign Language. For the sign language specific to Canada’s Atlantic provinces, see Maritime Sign Language.

American Sign Language
Native to	United States, Canada
Region	English-speaking North America
Signers	Native signers: 730,000 (2006)[1] L2 signers: 130,000 (2006)[1]
Language family	French Sign-based (possibly a creole with Martha’s Vineyard Sign Language) American Sign Language
Dialects	Black American Sign Bolivian Sign Burundian Sign Costa Rican Sign Ghanaian Sign Nigerian Sign Francophone African Sign Québec Sign
Writing system	None are widely accepted si5s (ASLwrite), ASL-phabet, Stokoe notation, SignWriting
Official status
Official language in	none
Recognised minority language in	Ontario only in domains of: legislation, education and judiciary proceedings.[2] 45 US states formally recognize ASL in state law; Five states recognize ASL for educational foreign language requirements, but have not formally recognized ASL as a language in their legislatures.[3]
Language codes
ISO 639-3	ase
Glottolog	asli1244  ASL family amer1248  ASL proper
Areas where ASL or a dialect/derivative thereof is the national sign language   Areas where ASL is in significant use alongside another sign language

American Sign Language (ASL) is a natural language^[4] that serves as the predominant sign language of Deaf communities in the United States of America and most of Anglophone Canada. ASL is a complete and organized visual language that is expressed by employing both manual and nonmanual features.^[5] Besides North America, dialects of ASL and ASL-based creoles are used in many countries around the world, including much of West Africa and parts of Southeast Asia. ASL is also widely learned as a second language, serving as a lingua franca. ASL is most closely related to French Sign Language (LSF). It has been proposed that ASL is a creole language of LSF, although ASL shows features atypical of creole languages, such as agglutinative morphology.

ASL originated in the early 19th century in the American School for the Deaf (ASD) in West Hartford, Connecticut, from a situation of language contact. Since then, ASL use has been propagated widely by schools for the deaf and Deaf community organizations. Despite its wide use, no accurate count of ASL users has been taken. Reliable estimates for American ASL users range from 250,000 to 500,000 persons, including a number of children of deaf adults and other hearing individuals.

ASL signs have a number of phonemic components, such as movement of the face, the torso, and the hands. ASL is not a form of pantomime although iconicity plays a larger role in ASL than in spoken languages. English loan words are often borrowed through fingerspelling, although ASL grammar is unrelated to that of English. ASL has verbal agreement and aspectual marking and has a productive system of forming agglutinative classifiers. Many linguists believe ASL to be a subject–verb–object language. However, there are several alternative proposals to account for ASL word order.

Classification[edit]

ASL emerged as a language in the American School for the Deaf (ASD), founded by Thomas Gallaudet in 1817,^[6]: 7 which brought together Old French Sign Language, various village sign languages, and home sign systems. ASL was created in that situation by language contact.^{[7]: 11 [a]} ASL was influenced by its forerunners but distinct from all of them.^[6]: 7

The influence of French Sign Language (LSF) on ASL is readily apparent; for example, it has been found that about 58% of signs in modern ASL are cognate to Old French Sign Language signs.^{[6]: 7 [7]: 14} However, that is far less than the standard 80% measure used to determine whether related languages are actually dialects.^[7]: 14 That suggests that nascent ASL was highly affected by the other signing systems brought by the ASD students although the school’s original director, Laurent Clerc, taught in LSF.^{[6]: 7 [7]: 14} In fact, Clerc reported that he often learned the students’ signs rather than conveying LSF:^[7]: 14

I see, however, and I say it with regret, that any efforts that we have made or may still be making, to do better than, we have inadvertently fallen somewhat back of Abbé de l’Épée. Some of us have learned and still learn signs from uneducated pupils, instead of learning them from well instructed and experienced teachers.

— Clerc, 1852, from Woodward 1978:336

It has been proposed that ASL is a creole in which LSF is the superstrate language and the native village sign languages are substrate languages.^[8]: 493 However, more recent research has shown that modern ASL does not share many of the structural features that characterize creole languages.^[8]: 501 ASL may have begun as a creole and then undergone structural change over time, but it is also possible that it was never a creole-type language.^[8]: 501 There are modality-specific reasons that sign languages tend towards agglutination, such as the ability to simultaneously convey information via the face, head, torso, and other body parts. That might override creole characteristics such as the tendency towards isolating morphology.^[8]: 502 Additionally, Clerc and Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet may have used an artificially constructed form of manually coded language in instruction rather than true LSF.^[8]: 497

Although the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia share English as a common oral and written language, ASL is not mutually intelligible with either British Sign Language (BSL) or Auslan.^[9]: 68 All three languages show degrees of borrowing from English, but that alone is not sufficient for cross-language comprehension.^[9]: 68 It has been found that a relatively high percentage (37–44%) of ASL signs have similar translations in Auslan, which for oral languages would suggest that they belong to the same language family.^[9]: 69 However, that does not seem justified historically for ASL and Auslan, and it is likely that the resemblance is caused by the higher degree of iconicity in sign languages in general as well as contact with English.^[9]: 70

American Sign Language is growing in popularity in many states. Many high school and university students desire to take it as a foreign language, but until recently, it was usually not considered a creditable foreign language elective. ASL users, however, have a very distinct culture, and they interact very differently when they talk. Their facial expressions and hand movements reflect what they are communicating. They also have their own sentence structure, which sets the language apart.^[10]

American Sign Language is now being accepted by many colleges as a language eligible for foreign language course credit;^[11] many states are making it mandatory to accept it as such.^[12] in some states however, this is only true with regard to high school coursework.

History[edit]

Prior to the birth of ASL, sign language had been used by various communities in the United States.^[6]: 5 In the United States, as elsewhere in the world, hearing families with deaf children have historically employed ad hoc home sign, which often reaches much higher levels of sophistication than gestures used by hearing people in spoken conversation.^[6]: 5 As early as 1541 at first contact by Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, there were reports that the Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains widely spoke a sign language to communicate across vast national and linguistic lines.^[13]: 80

In the 19th century, a «triangle» of village sign languages developed in New England: one in Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts; one in Henniker, New Hampshire, and one in Sandy River Valley, Maine.^[14] Martha’s Vineyard Sign Language (MVSL), which was particularly important for the history of ASL, was used mainly in Chilmark, Massachusetts.^[6]: 5–6 Due to intermarriage in the original community of English settlers of the 1690s, and the recessive nature of genetic deafness, Chilmark had a high 4% rate of genetic deafness.^[6]: 5–6 MVSL was used even by hearing residents whenever a deaf person was present,^[6]: 5–6 and also in some situations where spoken language would be ineffective or inappropriate, such as during church sermons or between boats at sea.^[15]

ASL is thought to have originated in the American School for the Deaf (ASD), founded in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1817.^[6]: 4 Originally known as The American Asylum, At Hartford, For The Education And Instruction Of The Deaf And Dumb, the school was founded by the Yale graduate and divinity student Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet.^[16][17] Gallaudet, inspired by his success in demonstrating the learning abilities of a young deaf girl Alice Cogswell, traveled to Europe in order to learn deaf pedagogy from European institutions.^[16] Ultimately, Gallaudet chose to adopt the methods of the French Institut National de Jeunes Sourds de Paris, and convinced Laurent Clerc, an assistant to the school’s founder Charles-Michel de l’Épée, to accompany him back to the United States.^[16][b] Upon his return, Gallaudet founded the ASD on April 15, 1817.^[16]

The largest group of students during the first seven decades of the school were from Martha’s Vineyard, and they brought MVSL with them.^[7]: 10 There were also 44 students from around Henniker, New Hampshire, and 27 from the Sandy River valley in Maine, each of which had their own village sign language.^{[7]: 11 [c]} Other students brought knowledge of their own home signs.^[7]: 11 Laurent Clerc, the first teacher at ASD, taught using French Sign Language (LSF), which itself had developed in the Parisian school for the deaf established in 1755.^[6]: 7 From that situation of language contact, a new language emerged, now known as ASL.^[6]: 7

More schools for the deaf were founded after ASD, and knowledge of ASL spread to those schools.^[6]: 7 In addition, the rise of Deaf community organizations bolstered the continued use of ASL.^[6]: 8 Societies such as the National Association of the Deaf and the National Fraternal Society of the Deaf held national conventions that attracted signers from across the country.^[7]: 13 All of that contributed to ASL’s wide use over a large geographical area, atypical of a sign language.^{[7]: 14 [7]: 12}

While oralism, an approach to educating deaf students focusing on oral language, had previously been used in American schools, the Milan Congress made it dominant and effectively banned the use of sign languages at schools in the United States and Europe. However, the efforts of Deaf advocates and educators, more lenient enforcement of the Congress’ mandate, and the use of ASL in religious education and proselytism ensured greater use and documentation compared to European sign languages, albeit more influenced by fingerspelled loanwords and borrowed idioms from English as students were societally pressured to achieve fluency in spoken language.^[20] Nevertheless, oralism remained the prominent method of deaf education up to the 1950s.^[21] Linguists did not consider sign language to be true «language» but as something inferior.^[21] Recognition of the legitimacy of ASL was achieved by William Stokoe, a linguist who arrived at Gallaudet University in 1955 when that was still the dominant assumption.^[21] Aided by the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, Stokoe argued for manualism, the use of sign language in deaf education.^[21][22] Stokoe noted that sign language shares the important features that oral languages have as a means of communication, and even devised a transcription system for ASL.^[21] In doing so, Stokoe revolutionized both deaf education and linguistics.^[21] In the 1960s, ASL was sometimes referred to as «Ameslan», but that term is now considered obsolete.^[23]

Population[edit]

Counting the number of ASL signers is difficult because ASL users have never been counted by the American census.^{[24]: 1 [d]} The ultimate source for current estimates of the number of ASL users in the United States is a report for the National Census of the Deaf Population (NCDP) by Schein and Delk (1974).^[24]: 17 Based on a 1972 survey of the NCDP, Schein and Delk provided estimates consistent with a signing population between 250,000 and 500,000.^[24]: 26 The survey did not distinguish between ASL and other forms of signing; in fact, the name «ASL» was not yet in widespread use.^[24]: 18

Incorrect figures are sometimes cited for the population of ASL users in the United States based on misunderstandings of known statistics.^[24]: 20 Demographics of the deaf population have been confused with those of ASL use since adults who become deaf late in life rarely use ASL in the home.^[24]: 21 That accounts for currently-cited estimations that are greater than 500,000; such mistaken estimations can reach as high as 15,000,000.^{[24]: 1, 21} A 100,000-person lower bound has been cited for ASL users; the source of that figure is unclear, but it may be an estimate of prelingual deafness, which is correlated with but not equivalent to signing.^[24]: 22

ASL is sometimes incorrectly cited as the third- or fourth-most-spoken language in the United States.^{[24]: 15, 22} Those figures misquote Schein and Delk (1974), who actually concluded that ASL speakers constituted the third-largest population «requiring an interpreter in court».^{[24]: 15, 22} Although that would make ASL the third-most used language among monolinguals other than English, it does not imply that it is the fourth-most-spoken language in the United States since speakers of other languages may also speak English.^{[24]: 21–22}

Geographic distribution[edit]

ASL is used throughout Anglo-America.^[7]: 12 That contrasts with Europe, where a variety of sign languages are used within the same continent.^[7]: 12 The unique situation of ASL seems to have been caused by the proliferation of ASL through schools influenced by the American School for the Deaf, wherein ASL originated, and the rise of community organizations for the Deaf.^{[7]: 12–14}

Throughout West Africa, ASL-based sign languages are signed by educated Deaf adults.^[25]: 410 Such languages, imported by boarding schools, are often considered by associations to be the official sign languages of their countries and are named accordingly, such as Nigerian Sign Language, Ghanaian Sign Language.^[25]: 410 Such signing systems are found in Benin, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Liberia, Mauritania, Mali, Nigeria, and Togo.^[25]: 406 Due to lack of data, it is still an open question how similar those sign languages are to the variety of ASL used in America.^[25]: 411

In addition to the aforementioned West African countries, ASL is reported to be used as a first language in Barbados, Bolivia, Cambodia^[26] (alongside Cambodian Sign Language), the Central African Republic, Chad, China (Hong Kong), the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Jamaica, Kenya, Madagascar, the Philippines, Singapore, and Zimbabwe.^[1] ASL is also used as a lingua franca throughout the deaf world, widely learned as a second language.^[1]

Regional variation[edit]

Sign production[edit]

Sign production can often vary according to location. Signers from the South tend to sign with more flow and ease. Native signers from New York have been reported as signing comparatively quicker and sharper. Sign production of native Californian signers has also been reported as being fast. Research on that phenomenon often concludes that the fast-paced production for signers from the coasts could be due to the fast-paced nature of living in large metropolitan areas. That conclusion also supports how the ease with which Southern sign could be caused by the easygoing environment of the South in comparison to that of the coasts.^[27]

Sign production can also vary depending on age and native language. For example, sign production of letters may vary in older signers. Slight differences in finger spelling production can be a signal of age. Additionally, signers who learned American Sign Language as a second language vary in production. For Deaf signers who learned a different sign language before learning American Sign Language, qualities of their native language may show in their ASL production. Some examples of that varied production include fingerspelling towards the body, instead of away from it, and signing certain movement from bottom to top, instead of top to bottom. Hearing people who learn American Sign Language also have noticeable differences in signing production. The most notable production difference of hearing people learning American Sign Language is their rhythm and arm posture.^[28]

Sign variants[edit]

Most popularly, there are variants of the signs for English words such as «birthday», «pizza», «Halloween», «early», and «soon», just a sample of the most commonly recognized signs with variants based on regional change. The sign for «school» is commonly varied between black and white signers. The variation between signs produced by black and white signers is sometimes referred to as Black American Sign Language.^[29]

History and implications[edit]

The prevalence of residential Deaf schools can account for much of the regional variance of signs and sign productions across the United States. Deaf schools often serve students of the state in which the school resides. That limited access to signers from other regions, combined with the residential quality of Deaf Schools promoted specific use of certain sign variants. Native signers did not have much access to signers from other regions during the beginning years of their education. It is hypothesized that because of that seclusion, certain variants of a sign prevailed over others due to the choice of variant used by the student of the school/signers in the community.

However, American Sign Language does not appear to be vastly varied in comparison to other signed languages. That is because when Deaf education was beginning in the United States, many educators flocked to the American School for the Deaf in Hartford, Connecticut, whose central location for the first generation of educators in Deaf education to learn American Sign Language allows ASL to be more standardized than its variant.^[29]

Varieties[edit]

Varieties of ASL are found throughout the world. There is little difficulty in comprehension among the varieties of the United States and Canada.^[1]

Just as there are accents in speech, there are regional accents in sign. People from the South sign slower than people in the North—even people from northern and southern Indiana have different styles.

Mutual intelligibility among those ASL varieties is high, and the variation is primarily lexical.^[1] For example, there are three different words for English about in Canadian ASL; the standard way, and two regional variations (Atlantic and Ontario).^[30] Variation may also be phonological, meaning that the same sign may be signed in a different way depending on the region. For example, an extremely common type of variation is between the handshapes /1/, /L/, and /5/ in signs with one handshape.^[31]

There is also a distinct variety of ASL used by the Black Deaf community.^[1] Black ASL evolved as a result of racially segregated schools in some states, which included the residential schools for the deaf.^[32]: 4 Black ASL differs from standard ASL in vocabulary, phonology, and some grammatical structure.^[1][32]: 4 While African American English (AAE) is generally viewed as more innovating than standard English, Black ASL is more conservative than standard ASL, preserving older forms of many signs.^[32]: 4 Black sign language speakers use more two-handed signs than in mainstream ASL, are less likely to show assimilatory lowering of signs produced on the forehead (e.g. KNOW) and use a wider signing space.^[32]: 4 Modern Black ASL borrows a number of idioms from AAE; for instance, the AAE idiom «I feel you» is calqued into Black ASL.^[32]: 10

ASL is used internationally as a lingua franca, and a number of closely related sign languages derived from ASL are used in many different countries.^[1] Even so, there have been varying degrees of divergence from standard ASL in those imported ASL varieties. Bolivian Sign Language is reported to be a dialect of ASL, no more divergent than other acknowledged dialects.^[33] On the other hand, it is also known that some imported ASL varieties have diverged to the extent of being separate languages. For example, Malaysian Sign Language, which has ASL origins, is no longer mutually comprehensible with ASL and must be considered its own language.^[34] For some imported ASL varieties, such as those used in West Africa, it is still an open question how similar they are to American ASL.^[25]: 411

When communicating with hearing English speakers, ASL-speakers often use what is commonly called Pidgin Signed English (PSE) or ‘contact signing’, a blend of English structure with ASL vocabulary.^[1][35] Various types of PSE exist, ranging from highly English-influenced PSE (practically relexified English) to PSE which is quite close to ASL lexically and grammatically, but may alter some subtle features of ASL grammar.^[35] Fingerspelling may be used more often in PSE than it is normally used in ASL.^[36] There have been some constructed sign languages, known as Manually Coded English (MCE), which match English grammar exactly and simply replace spoken words with signs; those systems are not considered to be varieties of ASL.^[1][35]

Tactile ASL (TASL) is a variety of ASL used throughout the United States by and with the deaf-blind.^[1] It is particularly common among those with Usher’s syndrome.^[1] It results in deafness from birth followed by loss of vision later in life; consequently, those with Usher’s syndrome often grow up in the Deaf community using ASL, and later transition to TASL.^[37] TASL differs from ASL in that signs are produced by touching the palms, and there are some grammatical differences from standard ASL in order to compensate for the lack of nonmanual signing.^[1]

ASL changes over time and from generation to generation. The sign for telephone has changed as the shape of phones and the manner of holding them have changed.^[38] The development of telephones with screens has also changed ASL, encouraging the use of signs that can be seen on small screens.^[38]

Stigma[edit]

In 2013, the White House published a response to a petition that gained over 37,000 signatures to officially recognize American Sign Language as a community language and a language of instruction in schools. The response is titled «there shouldn’t be any stigma about American Sign Language» and addressed that ASL is a vital language for the Deaf and hard of hearing. Stigmas associated with sign languages and the use of sign for educating children often lead to the absence of sign during periods in children’s lives when they can access languages most effectively.^[39] Scholars such as Beth S. Benedict advocate not only for bilingualism (using ASL and English training) but also for early childhood intervention for children who are deaf. York University psychologist Ellen Bialystok has also campaigned for bilingualism, arguing that those who are bilingual acquire cognitive skills that may help to prevent dementia later in life.^[40]

Most children born to deaf parents are hearing.^[41]: 192 Known as CODAs («Children Of Deaf Adults»), they are often more culturally Deaf than deaf children, most of whom are born to hearing parents.^[41]: 192 Unlike many deaf children, CODAs acquire ASL as well as Deaf cultural values and behaviors from birth.^[41]: 192 Such bilingual hearing children may be mistakenly labeled as being «slow learners» or as having «language difficulties» because of preferential attitudes towards spoken language.^[41]: 195

Writing systems[edit]

Although there is no well-established writing system for ASL,^[42] written sign language dates back almost two centuries. The first systematic writing system for a sign language seems to be that of Roch-Ambroise Auguste Bébian, developed in 1825.^[43]: 153 However, written sign language remained marginal among the public.^[43]: 154 In the 1960s, linguist William Stokoe created Stokoe notation specifically for ASL. It is alphabetic, with a letter or diacritic for every phonemic (distinctive) hand shape, orientation, motion, and position, though it lacks any representation of facial expression, and is better suited for individual words than for extended passages of text.^[44] Stokoe used that system for his 1965 A Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles.^[45]

SignWriting, proposed in 1974 by Valerie Sutton,^[43]: 154 is the first writing system to gain use among the public and the first writing system for sign languages to be included in the Unicode Standard.^[46] SignWriting consists of more than 5000 distinct iconic graphs/glyphs.^[43]: 154 Currently, it is in use in many schools for the Deaf, particularly in Brazil, and has been used in International Sign forums with speakers and researchers in more than 40 countries, including Brazil, Ethiopia, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Slovenia, Tunisia, and the United States. Sutton SignWriting has both a printed and an electronically produced form so that persons can use the system anywhere that oral languages are written (personal letters, newspapers, and media, academic research). The systematic examination of the International Sign Writing Alphabet (ISWA) as an equivalent usage structure to the International Phonetic Alphabet for spoken languages has been proposed.^[47] According to some researchers, SignWriting is not a phonemic orthography and does not have a one-to-one map from phonological forms to written forms.^[43]: 163 That assertion has been disputed, and the process for each country to look at the ISWA and create a phonemic/morphemic assignment of features of each sign language was proposed by researchers Msc. Roberto Cesar Reis da Costa and Madson Barreto in a thesis forum on June 23, 2014.^[48] The SignWriting community has an open project on Wikimedia Labs to support the various Wikimedia projects on Wikimedia Incubator^[49] and elsewhere involving SignWriting. The ASL Wikipedia request was marked as eligible in 2008^[50] and the test ASL Wikipedia has 50 articles written in ASL using SignWriting.

The most widely used transcription system among academics is HamNoSys, developed at the University of Hamburg.^[43]: 155 Based on Stokoe Notation, HamNoSys was expanded to about 200 graphs in order to allow transcription of any sign language.^[43]: 155 Phonological features are usually indicated with single symbols, though the group of features that make up a handshape is indicated collectively with a symbol.^[43]: 155

Several additional candidates for written ASL have appeared over the years, including SignFont, ASL-phabet, and Si5s.

For English-speaking audiences, ASL is often glossed using English words. Such glosses are typically all-capitalized and are arranged in ASL order. For example, the ASL sentence DOG NOW CHASE>IX=3 CAT, meaning «the dog is chasing the cat», uses NOW to mark ASL progressive aspect and shows ASL verbal inflection for the third person (written with >IX=3). However, glossing is not used to write the language for speakers of ASL.^[42]

Phonology[edit]

Each sign in ASL is composed of a number of distinctive components, generally referred to as parameters. A sign may use one hand or both. All signs can be described using the five parameters involved in signed languages, which are handshape, movement, palm orientation, location and nonmanual markers.^[6]: 10 Just as phonemes of sound distinguish meaning in spoken languages, those parameters are the phonemes that distinguish meaning in signed languages like ASL.^[51] Changing any one of them may change the meaning of a sign, as illustrated by the ASL signs THINK and DISAPPOINTED:

THINK[6]: 10  Handshape Closed fist with index finger extended Orientation Facing signer’s body Location Tip of finger in contact with forehead Movement Unidirectional single contacting movement

DISAPPOINTED[6]: 10  Handshape (as for THINK) Orientation (as for THINK) Location Tip of finger in contact with chin Movement (as for THINK)

There are also meaningful nonmanual signals in ASL,^[6]: 49 which may include movement of the eyebrows, the cheeks, the nose, the head, the torso, and the eyes.^[6]: 49

William Stokoe proposed that such components are analogous to the phonemes of spoken languages.^{[43]: 601:15 [e]} There has also been a proposal that they are analogous to classes like place and manner of articulation.^{[43]: 601:15} As in spoken languages, those phonological units can be split into distinctive features.^[6]: 12 For instance, the handshapes /2/ and /3/ are distinguished by the presence or absence of the feature [± closed thumb], as illustrated to the right.^[6]: 12 ASL has processes of allophony and phonotactic restrictions.^{[6]: 12, 19} There is ongoing research into whether ASL has an analog of syllables in spoken language.^[6]: 1

Grammar[edit]

Morphology[edit]

ASL has a rich system of verbal inflection, which involves both grammatical aspect: how the action of verbs flows in time—and agreement marking.^{[6]: 27–28} Aspect can be marked by changing the manner of movement of the verb; for example, continuous aspect is marked by incorporating rhythmic, circular movement, while punctual aspect is achieved by modifying the sign so that it has a stationary hand position.^{[6]: 27–28} Verbs may agree with both the subject and the object, and are marked for number and reciprocity.^[6]: 28 Reciprocity is indicated by using two one-handed signs; for example, the sign SHOOT, made with an L-shaped handshape with inward movement of the thumb, inflects to SHOOT_[reciprocal], articulated by having two L-shaped hands «shooting» at each other.^[6]: 29

ASL has a productive system of classifiers, which are used to classify objects and their movement in space.^[6]: 26 For example, a rabbit running downhill would use a classifier consisting of a bent V classifier handshape with a downhill-directed path; if the rabbit is hopping, the path is executed with a bouncy manner.^[6]: 26 In general, classifiers are composed of a «classifier handshape» bound to a «movement root».^[6]: 26 The classifier handshape represents the object as a whole, incorporating such attributes as surface, depth, and shape, and is usually very iconic.^[52] The movement root consists of a path, a direction and a manner.^[6]: 26

Fingerspelling[edit]

ASL possesses a set of 26 signs known as the American manual alphabet, which can be used to spell out words from the English language.^[53] Such signs make use of the 19 handshapes of ASL. For example, the signs for ‘p’ and ‘k’ use the same handshape but different orientations. A common misconception is that ASL consists only of fingerspelling; although such a method (Rochester Method) has been used, it is not ASL.^[36]

Fingerspelling is a form of borrowing, a linguistic process wherein words from one language are incorporated into another.^[36] In ASL, fingerspelling is used for proper nouns and for technical terms with no native ASL equivalent.^[36] There are also some other loan words which are fingerspelled, either very short English words or abbreviations of longer English words, e.g. O-N from English ‘on’, and A-P-T from English ‘apartment’.^[36] Fingerspelling may also be used to emphasize a word that would normally be signed otherwise.^[36]

Syntax[edit]

ASL is a subject–verb–object (SVO) language, but various phenomena affect that basic word order.^[54] Basic SVO sentences are signed without any pauses:^[29]

However, other word orders may also occur since ASL allows the topic of a sentence to be moved to sentence-initial position, a phenomenon known as topicalization.^[55] In object–subject–verb (OSV) sentences, the object is topicalized, marked by a forward head-tilt and a pause:^[56]

Besides, word orders can be obtained through the phenomenon of subject copy in which the subject is repeated at the end of the sentence, accompanied by head nodding for clarification or emphasis:^[29]

ASL also allows null subject sentences whose subject is implied, rather than stated explicitly. Subjects can be copied even in a null subject sentence, and the subject is then omitted from its original position, yielding a verb–object–subject (VOS) construction:^[56]

Topicalization, accompanied with a null subject and a subject copy, can produce yet another word order, object–verb–subject (OVS).

Those properties of ASL allow it a variety of word orders, leading many to question which is the true, underlying, «basic» order. There are several other proposals that attempt to account for the flexibility of word order in ASL. One proposal is that languages like ASL are best described with a topic–comment structure whose words are ordered by their importance in the sentence, rather than by their syntactic properties.^[57] Another hypothesis is that ASL exhibits free word order, in which syntax is not encoded in word order but can be encoded by other means such as head nods, eyebrow movement, and body position.^[54]

Iconicity[edit]

Common misconceptions are that signs are iconically self-explanatory, that they are a transparent imitation of what they mean, or even that they are pantomime.^[58] In fact, many signs bear no resemblance to their referent because they were originally arbitrary symbols, or their iconicity has been obscured over time.^[58] Even so, in ASL iconicity plays a significant role; a high percentage of signs resemble their referents in some way.^[59] That may be because the medium of sign, three-dimensional space, naturally allows more iconicity than oral language.^[58]

In the era of the influential linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, it was assumed that the mapping between form and meaning in language must be completely arbitrary.^[59] Although onomatopoeia is a clear exception, since words like ‘choo-choo’ bear clear resemblance to the sounds that they mimic, the Saussurean approach was to treat them as marginal exceptions.^[60] ASL, with its significant inventory of iconic signs, directly challenges that theory.^[61]

Research on acquisition of pronouns in ASL has shown that children do not always take advantage of the iconic properties of signs when they interpret their meaning.^[62] It has been found that when children acquire the pronoun «you», the iconicity of the point (at the child) is often confused, being treated more like a name.^[63] That is a similar finding to research in oral languages on pronoun acquisition. It has also been found that iconicity of signs does not affect immediate memory and recall; less iconic signs are remembered just as well as highly-iconic signs.^[64]

See also[edit]

• American Sign Language grammar
• American Sign Language literature
• Baby sign language
• Bimodal bilingualism
• Great ape language, of which ASL has been one attempted mode
• Legal recognition of sign languages
• Pointing
• Sign name
• ASL interpreting

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

Bibliography[edit]

External links[edit]

• American Sign Language at Curlie
• Accessible American Sign Language vocabulary site
• American Sign Language discussion forum
• One-stop resource American Sign Language and video dictionary
• National Institute of Deafness ASL section
• National Association of the Deaf ASL information
• American Sign Language
• The American Sign Language Linguistics Research Project
• Video Dictionary of ASL
• American Sign Language Dictionary