Gothic revival is an architectural style that became popular in britain егэ

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A. Gothic Revival is an architectural style that became popular in Britain in the early 19^th century, right after the period of neo-classicism with its straight lines and noble columns. When English architects turned to the elegant tall towers and pointed narrow windows of medieval gothic castles, it was, in a way, a reaction to the machine production of the Industrial Revolution, as well as a desire to portray pre-industrial society as a golden age.

B. Present-day Britain is full of churches, universities, and other public buildings and private houses built in this style. However, the two most iconic and recognisable Gothic Revival constructions are the Houses of Parliament and the Tower Bridge in London. The Palace of Westminster that houses the British Parliament was built in the 1860s after the old building had burnt down, whereas the Tower Bridge was erected in 1894.

C. During the 19^th century, Gothic Revival quickly spread to other European countries and the USA. Several of the most prestigious American universities like Princeton or Yale adopted Gothic Revival style for their campuses and called it Collegiate Gothic. Gothic Revival style may not be as wellrepresented in Russia, but can be found there as well, if you know where to look  — sometimes in quite unexpected places!

D. The well-known Russian industrialist Alexei Khludov often went to London and Liverpool in the 1840s-1860s to learn about textile manufacturing and to buy equipment for his own cotton factories. Charmed by the brand new clock tower of the Houses of Parliament, he decided to build his own ‘Big Bens’ for his facilities in Egorievsk and Yartsevo, bringing Gothic Revival to these little places in Moscow and Smolensk regions.

E. Another Russian textile magnate Savva Morozov built a Gothic Revival mansion in central Moscow  — in Spiridonovka Street. It is not only from the outside that the mansion looks like a castle. Dark wooden Gothic interior, stained-glass windows and even thrones make you feel that you have been transported into the middle ages. Morozov’s mansion was the first big project of architect Fyodor Schechtel that brought him fame.

F. Perhaps the most unexpected place to find Gothic Revival interiors in Russia is Sandunov’s public baths  — the most luxurious public baths in Moscow. Sila Sandunov built his baths for aristocracy in the early 19^th century. But it was in the 1890s that the baths were rebuilt so that each room had its own architectural style. A heavy wooden ceiling, carved chairs and windows, as well as a beautiful mosaic make it look like an English castle.

G. There are many more buildings in Moscow that have been erected in Gothic Revival style by the most talented Russian architects in the 19^th century. But there is also one authentic English building  — designed by Richard Kneel Freeman, an architect from the town of Bolton near Manchester. It is the Anglican church of St Andrews in Voznesensky Lane, which makes the whole area around it look like a little part of Britain in central Moscow.

«Neo-Gothic» redirects here. Not to be confused with the New Gothic contemporary art movement.

Gothic Revival (also referred to as Victorian Gothic, neo-Gothic, or Gothick) is an architectural movement that began in the late 1740s in England. The movement gained momentum and expanded in the first half of the 19th century, as increasingly serious and learned admirers of the neo-Gothic styles sought to revive medieval Gothic architecture, intending to complement or even supersede the neoclassical styles prevalent at the time. Gothic Revival draws upon features of medieval examples, including decorative patterns, finials, lancet windows, and hood moulds. By the middle of the 19th century, Gothic Revival had become the preeminent architectural style in the Western world, only to fall out of fashion in the 1880s and early 1890s.

The Gothic Revival movement’s roots are intertwined with philosophical movements associated with Catholicism and a re-awakening of high church or Anglo-Catholic belief concerned by the growth of religious nonconformism. Ultimately, the «Anglo-Catholicism» tradition of religious belief and style became known for its intrinsic appeal in the third quarter of the 19th century. Gothic Revival architecture varied considerably in its faithfulness to both the ornamental style and principles of construction of its medieval original, sometimes amounting to little more than pointed window frames and touches of neo-Gothic decoration on a building otherwise on a wholly 19th-century plan and using contemporary materials and construction methods, most notably in the use of iron and, after the 1880s, steel in ways never seen in medieval exemplars.

In parallel with the ascendancy of neo-Gothic styles in 19th-century England, interest spread to the rest of Europe, Australia, Africa and the Americas; the 19th and early 20th centuries saw the construction of very large numbers of Gothic Revival structures worldwide. The influence of Revivalism had nevertheless peaked by the 1870s. New architectural movements, sometimes related as in the Arts and Crafts movement, and sometimes in outright opposition, such as Modernism, gained ground, and by the 1930s the architecture of the Victorian era was generally condemned or ignored. The later 20th century saw a revival of interest, manifested in the United Kingdom by the establishment of the Victorian Society in 1958.

Roots[edit]

The rise of evangelicalism in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries saw in England a reaction in the high church movement which sought to emphasise the continuity between the established church and the pre-Reformation Catholic church.^[1] Architecture, in the form of the Gothic Revival, became one of the main weapons in the high church’s armoury. The Gothic Revival was also paralleled and supported by «medievalism», which had its roots in antiquarian concerns with survivals and curiosities. As «industrialisation» progressed, a reaction against machine production and the appearance of factories also grew. Proponents of the picturesque such as Thomas Carlyle and Augustus Pugin took a critical view of industrial society and portrayed pre-industrial medieval society as a golden age. To Pugin, Gothic architecture was infused with the Christian values that had been supplanted by classicism and were being destroyed by industrialisation.^[2]

Gothic Revival also took on political connotations; with the «rational» and «radical» Neoclassical style being seen as associated with republicanism and liberalism (as evidenced by its use in the United States and to a lesser extent in Republican France), the more spiritual and traditional Gothic Revival became associated with monarchism and conservatism, which was reflected by the choice of styles for the rebuilt government centres of the British parliament’s Palace of Westminster in London, the Canadian Parliament Buildings in Ottawa and the Hungarian Parliament Building in Budapest.^[3]

In English literature, the architectural Gothic Revival and classical Romanticism gave rise to the Gothic novel genre, beginning with The Castle of Otranto (1764) by Horace Walpole,^[4] and inspired a 19th-century genre of medieval poetry that stems from the pseudo-bardic poetry of «Ossian». Poems such as «Idylls of the King» by Alfred, Lord Tennyson recast specifically modern themes in medieval settings of Arthurian romance. In German literature, the Gothic Revival also had a grounding in literary fashions.^[5]

Survival and revival[edit]

Gothic architecture began at the Basilica of Saint Denis near Paris, and the Cathedral of Sens in 1140^[6] and ended with a last flourish in the early 16th century with buildings like Henry VII’s Chapel at Westminster.^[7] However, Gothic architecture did not die out completely in the 16th century but instead lingered in on-going cathedral-building projects; at Oxford and Cambridge Universities, and in the construction of churches in increasingly isolated rural districts of England, France, Germany, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and in Spain.^[8] Londonderry Cathedral (completed 1633) was a major new structure in the Perpendicular Gothic style.^[9]

In Bologna, in 1646, the Baroque architect Carlo Rainaldi constructed Gothic vaults (completed 1658) for the Basilica of San Petronio in Bologna, which had been under construction since 1390; there, the Gothic context of the structure overrode considerations of the current architectural mode. Guarino Guarini, a 17th-century Theatine monk active primarily in Turin, recognized the «Gothic order» as one of the primary systems of architecture and made use of it in his practice.^[10]

Likewise, Gothic architecture survived in an urban setting during the later 17th century, as shown in Oxford and Cambridge, where some additions and repairs to Gothic buildings were considered to be more in keeping with the style of the original structures than contemporary Baroque. Sir Christopher Wren’s Tom Tower for Christ Church, University of Oxford,^[a] and, later, Nicholas Hawksmoor’s west towers of Westminster Abbey, blur the boundaries between what is called Gothic survival and the Gothic Revival.^[12] Throughout France in the 16th and 17th centuries, churches such as St-Eustache continued to be built following Gothic forms cloaked in classical details, until the arrival of Baroque architecture.^[13]

Even in Central Europe of the late 17th and 18th centuries, where Baroque dominated, some architects used elements of the Gothic style. The most important example is Jan Santini Aichel, whose Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of Nepomuk in Žďár nad Sázavou, Czech Republic, represents a peculiar and creative synthesis of Baroque and Gothic.^[14] An example of another and less striking use of the Gothic style in the time is the Basilica of Our Lady of Hungary in Márianosztra, Hungary, whose sanctuary was long considered authentically Gothic, because the 18th-century architect used medieval shapes to emphasize the continuity of the monastic community with its 14th-century founders.^[15]

During the mid-18th century rise of Romanticism, an increased interest and awareness of the Middle Ages among influential connoisseurs created a more appreciative approach to selected medieval arts, beginning with church architecture, the tomb monuments of royal and noble personages, stained glass, and late Gothic illuminated manuscripts. Other Gothic arts, such as tapestries and metalwork, continued to be disregarded as barbaric and crude, however sentimental and nationalist associations with historical figures were as strong in this early revival as purely aesthetic concerns.^[16]

German Romanticists (including philosopher and writer Goethe and architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel), began to appreciate the picturesque character of ruins—»picturesque» becoming a new aesthetic quality—and those mellowing effects of time that the Japanese call wabi-sabi and that Horace Walpole independently admired, mildly tongue-in-cheek, as «the true rust of the Barons’ wars».^[b][18] The «Gothick» details of Walpole’s Twickenham villa, Strawberry Hill House begun in 1749, appealed to the rococo tastes of the time,^[c][20] and were fairly quickly followed by James Talbot at Lacock Abbey, Wiltshire.^[21] By the 1770s, thoroughly neoclassical architects such as Robert Adam and James Wyatt were prepared to provide Gothic details in drawing-rooms, libraries and chapels and, for William Beckford at Fonthill in Wiltshire, a complete romantic vision of a Gothic abbey.^[d][24]

Some of the earliest architectural examples of the revived are found in Scotland. Inveraray Castle, constructed from 1746 for the Duke of Argyll, with design input from William Adam, displays the incorporation of turrets.^[e] The architectural historian John Gifford writes that the castellations were the «symbolic assertion of the still quasi-feudal power [the duke] exercised over the inhabitants within his heritable jurisdictions».^[26] Most buildings were still largely in the established Palladian style, but some houses incorporated external features of the Scots baronial style. Robert Adam’s houses in this style include Mellerstain^[27] and Wedderburn^[28] in Berwickshire and Seton Castle in East Lothian,^[29] but it is most clearly seen at Culzean Castle, Ayrshire, remodelled by Adam from 1777.^[30] The eccentric landscape designer Batty Langley even attempted to «improve» Gothic forms by giving them classical proportions.^[31]

A younger generation, taking Gothic architecture more seriously, provided the readership for John Britton’s series Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain, which began appearing in 1807.^[32] In 1817, Thomas Rickman wrote an Attempt… to name and define the sequence of Gothic styles in English ecclesiastical architecture, «a text-book for the architectural student». Its long antique title is descriptive: Attempt to discriminate the styles of English architecture from the Conquest to the Reformation; preceded by a sketch of the Grecian and Roman orders, with notices of nearly five hundred English buildings. The categories he used were Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular. It went through numerous editions, was still being republished by 1881, and has been reissued in the 21st century.^[f][34]

The most common use for Gothic Revival architecture was in the building of churches. Major examples of Gothic cathedrals in the U.S. include the cathedrals of St. John the Divine and St. Patrick in New York City and the Washington National Cathedral on Mount St. Alban in northwest Washington, D.C. One of the biggest churches in Gothic Revival style in Canada is Basilica of Our Lady Immaculate in Ontario.^[35]

Gothic Revival architecture remained one of the most popular and long-lived of the many revival styles of architecture. Although it began to lose force and popularity after the third quarter of the 19th century in commercial, residential and industrial fields, some buildings such as churches, schools, colleges and universities were still constructed in the Gothic style, often known as «Collegiate Gothic», which remained popular in England, Canada and in the United States until well into the early to mid-20th century. Only when new materials, like steel and glass along with concern for function in everyday working life and saving space in the cities, meaning the need to build up instead of out, began to take hold did the Gothic Revival start to disappear from popular building requests.^[36]

Gothic Revival in the other decorative arts[edit]

The revived Gothic style was not limited to architecture. Classical Gothic buildings of the 12th to 16th Centuries were a source of inspiration to 19th-century designers in numerous fields of work. Architectural elements such as pointed arches, steep-sloping roofs and fancy carvings like lace and lattice work were applied to a wide range of Gothic Revival objects. Some examples of Gothic Revivals influence can be found in heraldic motifs in coats of arms, painted furniture with elaborate painted scenes like the whimsical Gothic detailing in English furniture is traceable as far back as Lady Pomfret’s house in Arlington Street, London (1740s),^[37] and Gothic fretwork in chairbacks and glazing patterns of bookcases is a familiar feature of Chippendale’s Director (1754, 1762), where, for example, the three-part bookcase employs Gothic details with Rococo profusion, on a symmetrical form.^[38][39] Abbotsford in the Scottish Borders, rebuilt from 1816 by Sir Walter Scott and paid for by the profits from his, hugely successful, historical novels, exemplifies the «Regency Gothic» style.^[g][41] Gothic Revival also includes the reintroduction of medieval clothes and dances in historical re-enactments staged especially in the second part of the 19th century, although one of the first, the Eglinton Tournament of 1839, remains the most famous.^[42]

During the Bourbon Restoration in France (1814–1830) and the Louis-Philippe period (1830-1848), Gothic Revival motifs start to appear, together with revivals of the Renaissance and of Rococo. During these two periods, the vogue for medieval things led craftsmen to adopt Gothic decorative motifs in their work, such as bell turrets, lancet arches, trefoils, Gothic tracery and rose windows. This style was also as «Cathedral style» («À la catédrale»).^[43][44]

By the mid-19th century, Gothic traceries and niches could be inexpensively re-created in wallpaper, and Gothic blind arcading could decorate a ceramic pitcher. Writing in 1857, J. G. Crace, an influential decorator from a family of influential interior designers, expressed his preference for the Gothic style: «In my opinion there is no quality of lightness, elegance, richness or beauty possessed by any other style… [or] in which the principles of sound construction can be so well carried out».^[45] The illustrated catalogue for the Great Exhibition of 1851 is replete with Gothic detail, from lacemaking and carpet designs to heavy machinery. Nikolaus Pevsner’s volume on the exhibits at the Great Exhibition, High Victorian Design published in 1951, was an important contribution to the academic study of Victorian taste and an early indicator of the later 20th century rehabilitation of Victorian architecture and the objects with which they decorated their buildings.^[46]

In 1847, eight thousand British crown coins were minted in proof condition with the design using an ornate reverse in keeping with the revived style. Considered by collectors to be particularly beautiful, they are known as ‘Gothic crowns’. The design was repeated in 1853, again in proof. A similar two shilling coin, the ‘Gothic florin’ was minted for circulation from 1851 to 1887.^[47][48]

Romanticism and nationalism[edit]

French neo-Gothic had its roots in the French medieval Gothic architecture, where it was created in the 12th century. Gothic architecture was sometimes known during the medieval period as the «Opus Francigenum», (the «French Art»). French scholar Alexandre de Laborde wrote in 1816 that «Gothic architecture has beauties of its own»,^[49] which marked the beginning of the Gothic Revival in France. Starting in 1828, Alexandre Brogniart, the director of the Sèvres porcelain manufactory, produced fired enamel paintings on large panes of plate glass, for King Louis-Philippe’s Chapelle royale de Dreux, an important early French commission in Gothic taste,^[50] preceded mainly by some Gothic features in a few jardins paysagers.^[51]

The French Gothic Revival was set on sounder intellectual footings by a pioneer, Arcisse de Caumont, who founded the Societé des Antiquaires de Normandie at a time when antiquaire still meant a connoisseur of antiquities, and who published his great work on architecture in French Normandy in 1830.^[52] The following year Victor Hugo’s historical romance novel The Hunchback of Notre-Dame appeared, in which the great Gothic cathedral of Paris was at once a setting and a protagonist in a hugely popular work of fiction. Hugo intended his book to awaken a concern for the surviving Gothic architecture left in Europe, however, rather than to initiate a craze for neo-Gothic in contemporary life.^[53] In the same year that Notre-Dame de Paris appeared, the new French restored Bourbon monarchy established an office in the Royal French Government of Inspector-General of Ancient Monuments, a post which was filled in 1833 by Prosper Mérimée, who became the secretary of a new Commission des Monuments Historiques in 1837.^[54] This was the Commission that instructed Eugène Viollet-le-Duc to report on the condition of the Abbey of Vézelay in 1840.^[55] Following this, Viollet le Duc set out to restore most of the symbolic buildings in France including Notre Dame de Paris,^[56] Vézelay,^[57] Carcassonne,^[58] Roquetaillade castle,^[59] the famous Mont-Saint-Michel Abbey on its peaked coastal island,^[60] Pierrefonds,^[61] and Palais des Papes in Avignon.^[58] When France’s first prominent neo-Gothic church^[h] was built, the Basilica of Saint-Clotilde,^[i] Paris, begun in 1846 and consecrated in 1857, the architect chosen was of German extraction, Franz Christian Gau, (1790–1853); the design was significantly modified by Gau’s assistant, Théodore Ballu, in the later stages, to produce the pair of flèches that crown the west end.^[64]

In Germany, there was a renewal of interest in the completion of Cologne Cathedral. Begun in 1248, it was still unfinished at the time of the revival. The 1820s «Romantic» movement brought a new appreciation of the building, and construction work began once more in 1842, marking a German return for Gothic architecture. St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague, begun in 1344, was also completed in the mid-19th and early 20th centuries.^[65] The importance of the Cologne completion project in German-speaking lands has been explored by Michael J. Lewis, «The Politics of the German Gothic Revival: August Reichensperger». Reichensperger was himself in no doubt as to the cathedral’s central position in Germanic culture; «Cologne Cathedral is German to the core, it is a national monument in the fullest sense of the word, and probably the most splendid monument to be handed down to us from the past».^[66]

Because of Romantic nationalism in the early 19th century, the Germans, French and English all claimed the original Gothic architecture of the 12th century era as originating in their own country. The English boldly coined the term «Early English» for «Gothic», a term that implied Gothic architecture was an English creation. In his 1832 edition of Notre Dame de Paris, author Victor Hugo said «Let us inspire in the nation, if it is possible, love for the national architecture», implying that «Gothic» is France’s national heritage. In Germany, with the completion of Cologne Cathedral in the 1880s, at the time its summit was the world’s tallest building, the cathedral was seen as the height of Gothic architecture.^[67] Other major completions of Gothic cathedrals were of Regensburger Dom (with twin spires completed from 1869 to 1872),^[68] Ulm Münster (with a 161-meter tower from 1890)^[69] and St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague (1844–1929).^[70]

In Belgium, a 15th-century church in Ostend burned down in 1896. King Leopold II funded its replacement, the Saint Peter’s and Saint Paul’s Church, a cathedral-scale design which drew inspiration from the neo-Gothic Votive Church in Vienna and Cologne Cathedral.^[71] In Mechelen, the largely unfinished building drawn in 1526 as the seat of the Great Council of The Netherlands, was not actually built until the early 20th century, although it closely followed Rombout II Keldermans’s Brabantine Gothic design, and became the ‘new’ north wing of the City Hall.^[72][73] In Florence, the Duomo’s temporary façade erected for the Medici-House of Lorraine nuptials in 1588–1589, was dismantled, and the west end of the cathedral stood bare again until 1864, when a competition was held to design a new façade suitable to Arnolfo di Cambio’s original structure and the fine campanile next to it. This competition was won by Emilio De Fabris, and so work on his polychrome design and panels of mosaic was begun in 1876 and completed by 1887, creating the Neo-Gothic western façade.^[74]
Eastern Europe also saw much Revival construction; in addition to the Hungarian Parliament Building in Budapest,^[3] the Bulgarian National Revival saw the introduction of Gothic Revival elements into its vernacular ecclesiastical and residential architecture. The largest project of the Slavine School is the Lopushna Monastery cathedral (1850–1853), though later churches such as Saint George’s Church, Gavril Genovo display more prominent vernacular Gothic Revival features.^[75]

In Scotland, while a similar Gothic style to that used further south in England was adopted by figures including Frederick Thomas Pilkington (1832–98)^[76] in secular architecture it was marked by the re-adoption of the Scots baronial style.^[77] Important for the adoption of the style in the early 19th century was Abbotsford, which became a model for the modern revival of the baronial style.^[78] Common features borrowed from 16th- and 17th-century houses included battlemented gateways, crow-stepped gables, pointed turrets and machicolations. The style was popular across Scotland and was applied to many relatively modest dwellings by architects such as William Burn (1789–1870), David Bryce (1803–76),^[79] Edward Blore (1787–1879), Edward Calvert (c. 1847–1914) and Robert Stodart Lorimer (1864–1929) and in urban contexts, including the building of Cockburn Street in Edinburgh (from the 1850s) as well as the National Wallace Monument at Stirling (1859–1869).^[80] The reconstruction of Balmoral Castle as a baronial palace and its adoption as a royal retreat from 1855 to 1858 confirmed the popularity of the style.^[78]

In the United States, the first «Gothic stile»^[81] church (as opposed to churches with Gothic elements) was Trinity Church on the Green, New Haven, Connecticut. It was designed by Ithiel Town between 1812 and 1814, while he was building his Federalist-style Center Church, New Haven next to this radical new «Gothic-style» church. Its cornerstone was laid in 1814,^[82] and it was consecrated in 1816.^[83] It predates St Luke’s Church, Chelsea, often said to be the first Gothic-revival church in London. Though built of trap rock stone with arched windows and doors, parts of its tower and its battlements were wood. Gothic buildings were subsequently erected by Episcopal congregations in Connecticut at St John’s in Salisbury (1823), St John’s in Kent (1823–26) and St Andrew’s in Marble Dale (1821–1823).^[81] These were followed by Town’s design for Christ Church Cathedral (Hartford, Connecticut) (1827), which incorporated Gothic elements such as buttresses into fabric of the church. St. Paul’s Episcopal Church in Troy, New York, was constructed in 1827–1828 as an exact copy of Town’s design for Trinity Church, New Haven, but using local stone; due to changes in the original, St. Paul’s is closer to Town’s original design than Trinity itself. In the 1830s, architects began to copy specific English Gothic and Gothic Revival Churches, and these «‘mature Gothic Revival’ buildings made the domestic Gothic style architecture which preceded it seem primitive and old-fashioned».^[84]

There are many examples of Gothic Revival architecture in Canada. The first major structure was Notre-Dame Basilica in Montreal, Quebec, which was designed in 1824.^[85] The capital, Ottawa, Ontario, was predominantly a 19th-century creation in the Gothic Revival style. The Parliament Hill buildings were the preeminent example, of which the original library survives today (after the rest was destroyed by fire in 1916).^[86] Their example was followed elsewhere in the city and outlying areas, showing how popular the Gothic Revival movement had become.^[35] Other examples of Canadian Gothic Revival architecture in Ottawa are the Victoria Memorial Museum, (1905–08),^[87] the Royal Canadian Mint, (1905–08),^[88] and the Connaught Building, (1913–16),^[89] all by David Ewart.^[90]

Gothic as a moral force[edit]

Pugin and «truth» in architecture[edit]

In the late 1820s, A. W. N. Pugin, still a teenager, was working for two highly visible employers, providing Gothic detailing for luxury goods.^[91] For the Royal furniture makers Morel and Seddon he provided designs for redecorations for the elderly George IV at Windsor Castle in a Gothic taste suited to the setting.^[j][93] For the royal silversmiths Rundell Bridge and Co., Pugin provided designs for silver from 1828, using the 14th-century Anglo-French Gothic vocabulary that he would continue to favour later in designs for the new Palace of Westminster.^[94] Between 1821 and 1838 Pugin and his father published a series of volumes of architectural drawings, the first two entitled, Specimens of Gothic Architecture, and the following three, Examples of Gothic Architecture, that were to remain both in print and the standard references for Gothic Revivalists for at least the next century.^[95]

In Contrasts: or, a Parallel between the Noble Edifices of the Middle Ages, and similar Buildings of the Present Day (1836), Pugin expressed his admiration not only for medieval art but for the whole medieval ethos, suggesting that Gothic architecture was the product of a purer society. In The True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture (1841), he set out his «two great rules of design: 1st, that there should be no features about a building which are not necessary for convenience, construction or propriety; 2nd, that all ornament should consist of enrichment of the essential construction of the building». Urging modern craftsmen to seek to emulate the style of medieval workmanship as well as reproduce its methods, Pugin sought to reinstate Gothic as the true Christian architectural style.^[96]

Pugin’s most notable project was the Houses of Parliament in London, after its predecessor was largely destroyed in a fire in 1834.^[k][98] His part in the design consisted of two campaigns, 1836–1837 and again in 1844 and 1852, with the classicist Charles Barry as his nominal superior. Pugin provided the external decoration and the interiors, while Barry designed the symmetrical layout of the building, causing Pugin to remark, «All Grecian, Sir; Tudor details on a classic body».^[99]

Ruskin and Venetian Gothic[edit]

John Ruskin supplemented Pugin’s ideas in his two influential theoretical works, The Seven Lamps of Architecture (1849) and The Stones of Venice (1853). Finding his architectural ideal in Venice, Ruskin proposed that Gothic buildings excelled above all other architecture because of the «sacrifice» of the stone-carvers in intricately decorating every stone. In this, he drew a contrast between the physical and spiritual satisfaction which a medieval craftsman derived from his work, and the lack of these satisfactions afforded to modern, industrialised labour.^[l][101]

By declaring the Doge’s Palace to be «the central building of the world», Ruskin argued the case for Gothic government buildings as Pugin had done for churches, though mostly only in theory. When his ideas were put into practice, Ruskin often disliked the result, although he supported many architects, such as Thomas Newenham Deane and Benjamin Woodward, and was reputed to have designed some of the corbel decorations for that pair’s Oxford University Museum of Natural History.^[102] A major clash between the Gothic and Classical styles in relation to governmental offices occurred less than a decade after the publication of The Stones of Venice. A public competition for the construction of a new Foreign Office in Whitehall saw the decision to award first place to a Gothic design by George Gilbert Scott overturned by the Prime Minister, Lord Palmerston, who successfully demanded a building in the Italianate style.^[m][104]

Ecclesiology and funerary style[edit]

In England, the Church of England was undergoing a revival of Anglo-Catholic and ritualist ideology in the form of the Oxford Movement, and it became desirable to build large numbers of new churches to cater for the growing population, and cemeteries for their hygienic burials. This found ready exponents in the universities, where the ecclesiological movement was forming. Its proponents believed that Gothic was the only style appropriate for a parish church, and favoured a particular era of Gothic architecture – the «decorated». The Cambridge Camden Society, through its journal The Ecclesiologist, was so savagely critical of new church buildings that were below its exacting standards and its pronouncements were followed so avidly that it became the epicentre of the flood of Victorian restoration that affected most of the Anglican cathedrals and parish churches in England and Wales.^[105]

St Luke’s Church, Chelsea, was a new-built Commissioner’s Church of 1820–24, partly built using a grant of £8,333 towards its construction with money voted by Parliament as a result of the Church Building Act of 1818.^[106] It is often said to be the first Gothic Revival church in London,^[107] and, as Charles Locke Eastlake put it: «probably the only church of its time in which the main roof was groined throughout in stone».^[108] Nonetheless, the parish was firmly low church, and the original arrangement, modified in the 1860s, was as a «preaching church» dominated by the pulpit, with a small altar and wooden galleries over the nave aisle.^[109]

The development of the private major metropolitan cemeteries was occurring at the same time as the movement; Sir William Tite pioneered the first cemetery in the Gothic style at West Norwood in 1837, with chapels, gates, and decorative features in the Gothic manner, attracting the interest of contemporary architects such as George Edmund Street, Barry, and William Burges. The style was immediately hailed a success and universally replaced the previous preference for classical design.^[110]

Not every architect or client was swept away by this tide. Although Gothic Revival succeeded in becoming an increasingly familiar style of architecture, the attempt to associate it with the notion of high church superiority, as advocated by Pugin and the ecclesiological movement, was anathema to those with ecumenical or nonconformist principles. Alexander «Greek» Thomson launched a famous attack; «We are told we should adopt [Gothic] because it is the Christian style, and this most impudent assertion has been accepted as sound doctrine even by earnest and intelligent Protestants; whereas it ought only to have force with those who believe that Christian truth attained its purest and most spiritual development at the period when this style of architecture constituted its corporeal form».^[111] Those rejecting the link between Gothic and Catholicism looked to adopt it solely for its aesthetic romantic qualities, to combine it with other styles, or look to northern European Brick Gothic for a more plain appearance; or in some instances all three of these, as at the non-denominational Abney Park Cemetery in east London, designed by William Hosking FSA in 1840.^[112]

Viollet-le-Duc and Iron Gothic[edit]

France had lagged slightly in entering the neo-Gothic scene, but produced a major figure in the revival in Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. As well as a powerful and influential theorist, Viollet-le-Duc was a leading architect whose genius lay in restoration.^[n] He believed in restoring buildings to a state of completion that they would not have known even when they were first built, theories he applied to his restorations of the walled city of Carcassonne,^[58] and to Notre-Dame and Sainte Chapelle in Paris.^[56] In this respect he differed from his English counterpart Ruskin, as he often replaced the work of mediaeval stonemasons. His rational approach to Gothic stood in stark contrast to the revival’s romanticist origins.^[114][115] Throughout his career he remained in a quandary as to whether iron and masonry should be combined in a building. Iron had in fact been used in Gothic buildings since the earliest days of the revival. It was only with Ruskin and the archaeological Gothic’s demand for historical truth that iron, whether it was visible or not, was deemed improper for a Gothic building. Ultimately, the utility of iron won out: «substituting a cast iron shaft for a granite, marble or stone column is not bad, but one must agree that it cannot be considered as an innovation, as the introduction of a new principle. Replacing a stone or wooden lintel by an iron breastsummer is very good».^[116] He strongly opposed illusion, however: reacting against the casing of a cast iron pillar in stone, he wrote; «il faut que la pierre paraisse bien être de la pierre; le fer, du fer; le bois, du bois» (stone must appear to be stone; iron, iron; wood, wood).^[117]

The arguments against modern construction materials began to collapse in the mid-19th century as great prefabricated structures such as the glass and iron Crystal Palace and the glazed courtyard of the Oxford University Museum of Natural History were erected, which appeared to embody Gothic principles.^{[o][119][120]} Between 1863 and 1872 Viollet-le-Duc published his Entretiens sur l’architecture, a set of daring designs for buildings that combined iron and masonry.^[121] Though these projects were never realised, they influenced several generations of designers and architects, notably Antoni Gaudí in Spain and, in England, Benjamin Bucknall, Viollet’s foremost English follower and translator, whose masterpiece was Woodchester Mansion.^[122] The flexibility and strength of cast-iron freed neo-Gothic designers to create new structural Gothic forms impossible in stone, as in Calvert Vaux’s cast-iron Gothic bridge in Central Park, New York dating from the 1860. Vaux enlisted openwork forms derived from Gothic blind-arcading and window tracery to express the spring and support of the arching bridge, in flexing forms that presage Art Nouveau.^[123]

Collegiate Gothic[edit]

In the United States, Collegiate Gothic was a late and literal resurgence of the English Gothic Revival, adapted for American university campuses. The term «Collegiate Gothic» originated from American architect Alexander Jackson Davis’s handwritten description of his own «English Collegiate Gothic Mansion» of 1853 for the Harrals of Bridgeport.^[124][125] By the 1890s, the movement was known as «Collegiate Gothic».^[126]

The firm of Cope & Stewardson was an early and important exponent, transforming the campuses of Bryn Mawr College,^[127] Princeton University^[128] and the University of Pennsylvania in the 1890s.^[129] In 1872, Abner Jackson, the President of Trinity College, Connecticut, visited Britain, seeking models and an architect for a planned new campus for the college. William Burges was chosen and he drew up a four-quadrangled masterplan, in his Early French style. Lavish illustrations were produced by Axel Haig.^[130] However, the estimated cost, at just under one million dollars, together with the sheer scale of the plans, thoroughly alarmed the College Trustees^[131] and only one-sixth of the plan was executed, the present Long Walk, with Francis H. Kimball acting as local, supervising, architect, and Frederick Law Olmsted laying out the grounds.^[130] Hitchcock considers the result, «perhaps the most satisfactory of all of [Burges’s] works and the best example anywhere of Victorian Gothic collegiate architecture».^[132]

The movement continued into the 20th century, with Cope & Stewardson’s campus for Washington University in St. Louis (1900–09),^[133] Charles Donagh Maginnis’s buildings at Boston College (1910s) (including Gasson Hall),^[134] Ralph Adams Cram’s design for the Princeton University Graduate College (1913),^[135] and James Gamble Rogers’ reconstruction of the campus of Yale University (1920s).^[136] Charles Klauder’s Gothic Revival skyscraper on the University of Pittsburgh’s campus, the Cathedral of Learning (1926) exhibited very Gothic stylings both inside and out, while utilizing modern technologies to make the building taller.^[137]

Vernacular adaptations and the revival in the Antipodes[edit]

Carpenter Gothic houses and small churches became common in North America and other places in the late 19th century. These structures adapted Gothic elements such as pointed arches, steep gables, and towers to traditional American light-frame construction. The invention of the scroll saw and mass-produced wood moldings allowed a few of these structures to mimic the florid fenestration of the High Gothic. But, in most cases, Carpenter Gothic buildings were relatively unadorned, retaining only the basic elements of pointed-arch windows and steep gables. A well-known example of Carpenter Gothic is a house in Eldon, Iowa, that Grant Wood used for the background of his painting American Gothic.^[139]

New Zealand and Australia[edit]

Benjamin Mountfort, born in Britain, trained in Birmingham, and subsequently resident in Canterbury, New Zealand imported the Gothic Revival style to his adopted country and designed Gothic Revival churches in both wood and stone, notably in Christchurch.^[140] Frederick Thatcher designed wooden churches in the Gothic Revival style, for example Old St. Paul’s, Wellington, contributing to what has been described as New Zealand’s «one memorable contribution to world architecture».^[141] St Mary of the Angels, Wellington by Frederick de Jersey Clere is in the French Gothic style, and was the first Gothic design church built in ferro-concrete.^[142] The style also found favour in the southern New Zealand city of Dunedin, where the wealth brought in by the Otago Gold Rush of the 1860s allowed for substantial stone edifices to be constructed, using hard, dark breccia stone and a local white limestone, Oamaru stone, among them Maxwell Bury’s University of Otago Registry Building^[143] and the Dunedin Law Courts by John Campbell.^[144]

Australia, in particular in Melbourne and Sydney, saw the construction of large numbers of Gothic Revival buildings. William Wardell (1823–1899) was among the country’s most prolific architects; born and trained in England, after emigrating his most notable Australian designs include St Patrick’s Cathedral, Melbourne and St John’s College and St Mary’s Cathedral in Sydney. In common with many other 19th century architects, Wardell could deploy different styles at the command of his clients; Government House, Melbourne is Italianate.^[145] His banking house for the English, Scottish and Australian Bank in Melbourne has been described as «the Australian masterpiece of neo-Gothic».^[146] This claim has also been made for Edmund Blacket’s MacLaurin Hall at the University of Sydney,^[147] which sits in the quadrangle complex described as «arguably the most important group of Gothic and Tudor Revival style architecture in Australia».^[148]

Global Gothic[edit]

Henry-Russell Hitchcock, the architectural historian, noted the spread of the Gothic Revival in the 19th and early 20th centuries, «wherever English culture extended – as far as the West Coast of the United States and to the remotest Antipodes».^[149] The British Empire, almost at its geographic peak at the height of the Gothic Revival, assisted or compelled this spread. The English-speaking dominions, Canada, Australia particularly the state of Victoria and New Zealand generally adopted British styles in toto (see above); other parts of the empire saw regional adaptations. India saw the construction of many such buildings, in styles termed Indo-Saracenic or Hindu-Gothic.^[150] Notable examples include Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus)^[151] and the Taj Mahal Palace Hotel, both in Mumbai.^[152] At the hill station of Shimla, the summer capital of British India, an attempt was made to recreate the Home counties in the foothills of the Himalayas. Although Gothic Revival was the predominant architectural style, alternatives were also deployed; Rashtrapati Niwas, the former Viceregal Lodge, has been variously described as Scottish Baronial Revival,^[153] Tudor Revival^[154] and Jacobethan.^[p][156]

Other examples in the east include the late 19th century Church of the Saviour, Beijing, constructed on the orders of the Guangxu Emperor and designed by the Catholic missionary and architect Alphonse Favier;^[157] and the Wat Niwet Thammaprawat in the Bang Pa-In Royal Palace in Bangkok, by the Italian Joachim Grassi.^[158] In Indonesia, (the former colony of the Dutch East Indies), the Jakarta Cathedral was begun in 1891 and completed in 1901 by Dutch architect Antonius Dijkmans;^[159] while further north in the islands of the Philippines, the San Sebastian Church, designed by architects Genaro Palacios and Gustave Eiffel, was consecrated in 1891 in the still Spanish colony.^[160] Church building in South Africa was extensive, with little or no effort to adopt vernacular forms. Robert Gray, the first bishop of Cape Town, wrote; «I am sure we do not overestimate the importance of real Churches built after the fashion of our English churches». He oversaw the construction of some fifty such buildings between 1848 and his death in 1872.^[q][162] South America saw a later flourishing of the Revival, particularly in church architecture,^[163] for example the Metropolitan Cathedral of São Paulo in Brazil by the German Maximilian Emil Hehl,^[164] and the Cathedral of La Plata in Argentina.^[165]

20th and 21st centuries[edit]

The Gothic style dictated the use of structural members in compression, leading to tall, buttressed buildings with interior columns of load-bearing masonry and tall, narrow windows. But, by the start of the 20th century, technological developments such as the steel frame, the incandescent light bulb and the elevator made this approach obsolete. Steel framing supplanted the non-ornamental functions of rib vaults and flying buttresses, providing wider open interiors with fewer columns interrupting the view.

Some architects persisted in using Neo-Gothic tracery as applied ornamentation to an iron skeleton underneath, for example in Cass Gilbert’s 1913 Woolworth Building^[166] skyscraper in New York and Raymond Hood’s 1922 Tribune Tower in Chicago.^[167] The Tower Life Building in San Antonio, completed in 1929, is noted for the arrays of decorative gargoyles on its upper floors.^[168] But, over the first half of the century, Neo-Gothic was supplanted by Modernism, although some modernist architects saw the Gothic tradition of architectural form entirely in terms of the «honest expression» of the technology of the day, and saw themselves as heirs to that tradition, with their use of rectangular frames and exposed iron girders.

In spite of this, the Gothic Revival continued to exert its influence, simply because many of its more massive projects were still being built well into the second half of the 20th century, such as Giles Gilbert Scott’s Liverpool Cathedral^[169] and the Washington National Cathedral (1907–1990).^[170] Ralph Adams Cram became a leading force in American Gothic, with his most ambitious project the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York (claimed to be the largest cathedral in the world), as well as Collegiate Gothic buildings at Princeton University.^[171] Cram said «the style hewn out and perfected by our ancestors [has] become ours by uncontested inheritance».^[172]

Though the number of new Gothic Revival buildings declined sharply after the 1930s, they continue to be built. St Edmundsbury Cathedral, the cathedral of Bury St Edmunds in Suffolk, was expanded and reconstructed in a neo-Gothic style between the late 1950s and 2005, and a commanding stone central tower was added.^[173] A new church in the Gothic style is planned for St. John Vianney Parish in Fishers, Indiana.^[174][175] The Whittle Building at Peterhouse, University of Cambridge, opened in 2016, matches the neo-Gothic style of the rest of the courtyard in which it is situated.^[176]

Appreciation[edit]

By 1872, the Gothic Revival was mature enough in the United Kingdom that Charles Locke Eastlake, an influential professor of design, could produce A History of the Gothic Revival.^[177] Kenneth Clark’s, The Gothic Revival. An Essay, followed in 1928, in which he described the Revival as «the most widespread and influential artistic movement which England has ever produced.»^[178] The architect and writer Harry Stuart Goodhart-Rendel covered the subject of the Revival in an appreciative way in his Slade Lectures in 1934.^[r][180] But the conventional early 20th century view of the architecture of the Gothic Revival was strongly dismissive, critics writing of «the nineteenth century architectural tragedy»,^[181] ridiculing «the uncompromising ugliness»^[182] of the era’s buildings and attacking the «sadistic hatred of beauty» of its architects.^[183][s] The 1950s saw further signs of a recovery in the reputation of Revival architecture. John Steegman’s study, Consort of Taste (re-issued in 1970 as Victorian Taste, with a foreword by Nikolaus Pevsner), was published in 1950 and began a slow turn in the tide of opinion «towards a more serious and sympathetic assessment.»^[185] In 1958, Henry-Russell Hitchcock published his Architecture: Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, as part of the Pelican History of Art series edited by Nikolaus Pevsner. Hitchcock devoted substantial chapters to the Gothic Revival, noting that, while «there is no more typical nineteenth-century product than a Victorian Gothic church»,^[186] the success of the Victorian Gothic saw its practitioners design mansions,^[78] castles,^[187] colleges,^[188] and parliaments.^[186] The same year saw the foundation of the Victorian Society in England and, in 1963, the publication of Victorian Architecture, an influential collection of essays edited by Peter Ferriday.^[189] By 2008, the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the Victorian Society, the architecture of the Gothic Revival was more fully appreciated with some of its leading architects receiving scholarly attention and some of its best buildings, such as George Gilbert Scott’s St Pancras Station Hotel, being magnificently restored.^[190] The Society’s 50th anniversary publication, Saving A Century, surveyed a half-century of losses and successes, reflected on the changing perceptions toward Victorian architecture and concluded with a chapter entitled “The Victorians Victorious”.^[191]

Gallery[edit]

Europe[edit]

North America[edit]

South America[edit]

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  Capilla Cristo Pobre, Jauja, Peru

Australia and New Zealand[edit]

Asia[edit]

Decorative arts[edit]

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  Desk; c.1877; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Footnotes[edit]

References[edit]

Sources[edit]

Further reading[edit]

• Christian Amalvi, Le Goût du moyen âge, (Paris: Plon), 1996. The first French monograph on French Gothic Revival.
• «Le Gothique retrouvé» avant Viollet-le-Duc. Exhibition, 1979. The first French exhibition concerned with French Neo-Gothic.
• Hunter-Stiebel, Penelope, Of knights and spires: Gothic revival in France and Germany, 1989. ISBN 0-614-14120-6
• Phoebe B Stanton, Pugin (New York, Viking Press 1972, ©1971). ISBN 0-670-58216-6
• Summerson, Sir John, 1948. «Viollet-le-Duc and the rational point of view» collected in Heavenly Mansions and other essays on Architecture
• Sir Thomas G. Jackson, Modern Gothic Architecture (1873), Byzantine and Romanesque Architecture (1913), and three-volume Gothic Architecture in France, England and Italy (1901)

See also[edit]

Sub-varieties of the Gothic Revival style[edit]

Locale[edit]

External links[edit]

• Basilique Sainte-Clotilde, Paris
• Canada by Design: Parliament Hill, Ottawa at Library and Archives Canada
• Books, Research and Information
• Proyecto Documenta’s entries for neo-Gothic elements at the Valparaíso’s churches

The term «Gothic Revival» (sometimes called Victorian Gothic) usually refers to the period of mock-Gothic architecture practised in the second half of the 19th century. That time frame can be a little deceiving, however, for the Gothic style never really died in England after the end of the medieval period.

Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, when classical themes ruled the fashion-conscious world of architecture, Gothic style can be seen, if intermittently. This is because many architects were asked to remodel medieval buildings in a way that blended in with the older styles.

Christopher Wren, the master of classical style, for example, added Gothic elements to several of his London churches (St. Michael, Cornhill, and St. Dunstan-in-the-East). William Kent’s gatehouse at Hampton Court Palace (1723) fit in flawlessly with Cardinal Wolsey’s original Tudor Gothic. When Nicholas Hawksmoor remodelled the west towers at Westminster Abbey (from 1723) he did so in a sympathetic Gothic style.

In the late 18th century, running in parallel, as it were, with raging classicism, was a school of romanticized Gothic architecture, popularized by Batty Langley’s pattern books of medieval details. This medieval style was most common in domestic building, where the classical style overwhelmingly prevailed in public buildings.

One of the prime movers of a new interest in Gothic style was Horace Walpole. Walpole’s country house at Strawberry Hill, Twickenham (1750), was a fancifully romantic Gothic cottage. The style adopted by Walpole (termed, not surprisingly, «Strawberry Hill Gothic»), took many of the decorative elements of exterior medieval Gothic and moved them to the interior of the house. Thus, Walpole’s rooms are adorned — some might say over-adorned — with touches like cusped ceilings and crocketed arches.

Little of Walpole’s style is what you could call «authentic»; he merely took decorative touches and strewed them about with abandon. The controversial result is very much open to criticism; you either love it or hate it, but few people are ambivalent about it.

Other architects tried their hand at Gothic style. Even Robert Adam, the master of neo-classical country house architecture, used Gothic elements, for example at Culzean Castle, where the exterior crenellation recalls a medieval fortress.

James Wyatt was the most prominent 18th-century architect employing Gothic style in many of his buildings. His Ashridge Park (Hertfordshire), begun in 1806, is the best surviving example of his work. At Ashridge, Wyatt employed a huge central hall, open to the roof, in conscious imitation of a medieval great hall.

Into the early years of the 19th century many architects dabbled in Gothic style, but as with Walpole, it was more the decorative touches that appealed to them; little bits of carving here, a dab of pointed arch there.

Most paid scant heed to authentic proportion, which is one of the most powerful moving forces of «real» Gothic style. Even when the shapes used by builders were Gothic, the structure was not. Columns and piers were made with iron cores covered over with plaster.

In the early 19th century Gothic was considered more suitable for church and university buildings, where classical style was thought more appropriate for public and commercial buildings. Good examples of university Gothic can be seen at Cambridge, for example, the Bridge of Sighs at St. John’s College (1826) and the gateway at King’s College (1822-24).

It is really only after 1840 the Gothic Revival began to gather steam, and when it did the prime movers were not architects at all, but philosophers and social critics. This is the really curious aspect of the Victorian Gothic revival; it intertwined with deep moral and philosophical ideals in a way that may seem hard to comprehend in today’s world.

Men like A.W. Pugin and writer John Ruskin (The Seven Lamps of Architecture, 1849) sincerely believed that the Middle Ages was a watershed in human achievement and that Gothic architecture represented the perfect marriage of spiritual and artistic values.

Ruskin allied himself with the Pre-Raphaelites and vocally advocated a return to the values of craftsmanship, artistic, and spiritual beauty in architecture and the arts in general. Ruskin and his brethren declared that only those materials which had been available for use in the Middle Ages should be employed in Gothic Revival buildings.

Even more narrow-minded than Ruskin were followers of the «ecclesiological movement», which began in the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Adherents of the ecclesiological movement believed that only the Gothic style was suitable for church architecture, but not just any Gothic style!

To them, the «Middle Pointed» or Decorated style prevalent in the late 13th to mid 14th century was the only true Gothic. The bible of the movement was the monthly publication, The Ecclesiologist, which was published from 1841-1868. The publication was in essence a style-guide to proper Gothic architecture and design.

But all this theory needed some practical buildings to illustrate the ideals. The greatest example of authentic Gothic Revival is the Palace of Westminster (The Houses of Parliament). The Palace of Westminster was rebuilt by Sir Charles Barry and A.W. Pugin after a disastrous fire destroyed the old buildings in 1834. While Barry oversaw the construction, much of the design is Pugin’s, a design he carried out in exacting Perpendicular Gothic style inside and out.

The period from 1855-1885 is known as High Victorian Gothic. In this period architects like William Butterfield (Keble College Chapel, Oxford) and Sir George Gilbert Scott (The Albert Memorial, London) created a profusion of buildings in varying degrees of adherence to strict Gothic style. High Victorian Gothic was applied to a dizzying variety of architectural projects, from hotels to railroad stations, schools to civic centres. Despite the strident voice of the Ecclesiological Society, buildings were not limited to the Decorated period style but embraced Early English, Perpendicular, and even Romanesque styles.

Were the Gothic Revivalists successful? Certainly the Victorian Gothic style is easy to pick out from the original medieval. One of the reasons for this was a lack of trained craftsmen to carry out the necessary work. Original medieval building was time-consuming and labour-intensive. Yet there was a large pool of labourer’s skilled in the necessary techniques; techniques which were handed down through the generations that it might take to finish a large architectural project.

Victorian Gothic builders lacked that pool of skilled labourers to draw upon, so they were eventually forced to evolve methods of mass-producing decorative elements. These mass-produced touches, no matter how well made, were too polished, too perfect, and lacked the organic roughness of original medieval work.

Major Gothic Revival buildings to see in England:

Strawberry Hill, Twickenham

Exeter College Chapel, Oxford

Scarisbrick Hall, Lancashire

Keble College, Oxford

Palace of Westminster, London

Albert Memorial, London

Related:

AW Pugin

Джалолова Светлана Анатольевна, учитель английского языка Высшей квалификационной категории. Победитель конкурсного отбора на соискание Гранта Москвы в сфере образования 2010г. Старший эксперт ГИА ЕГЭ по английскому языку. Победитель Всероссийской Олимпиады учителей английского языка «Профи-край» 2015 год. Почетная грамота Министерства образования РФ 2014 г., Грамота победителя конкурса лучших учителей РФ 2007г., Диплом победителя конкурса на соискание Гранта Москвы 2010 г.. Стаж работы — 23 года.

Недашковская Наталья Михайловна, Учитель английского языка Высшей квалификационной категории. Победитель ПНПО 2007 г. Победитель конкурсного отбора на соискание Гранта Москвы в сфере образования 2010г. Эксперт ГИА ОГЭ по английскому языку. Проводила педагогическую экспертизу учебных изданий при РАО 2015-2016. Почетная грамота Министерства образования РФ 2013 г., Грамота победителя конкурса лучших учителей РФ 2007г., Диплом победителя конкурса на соискание Гранта Москвы 2010 г. Стаж работы — 35 лет.

Подвигина Марина Михайловна, Учитель английского языка Высшей квалификационной категории. Победитель ПНПО 2008 г. Победитель конкурсного отбора на соискание Гранта Москвы в сфере образования 2010г. Старший эксперт ГИА ЕГЭ по английскому языку. Проводила педагогическую экспертизу учебных изданий при РАО 2015-2016. Почетная грамота Министерства образования РФ 2015 г., Грамота победителя конкурса лучших учителей РФ 2008г., Диплом победителя конкурса на соискание Гранта Москвы 2010 г. Стаж работы — 23 года.
Трофимова Елена Анатольевна, Учитель английского языка Высшей квалификационной категории. Старший эксперт ГИА ЕГЭ по английскому языку. Почетная грамота Министерства образования РФ 2013 г. Стаж работы — 15 лет.

Раздел 2 «Чтение» включает в себя 3 задания

Задания данного раздела проверяют понимание основного содержания текста, понимание структурно-смысловых связей в тексте, полное и точное понимание информации в тексте. Рекомендуемое время выполнения данного раздела — 30 минут. Максимальный результат — 20 баллов.

1. Задание под номером 10, за которое дается максимальное количество баллов — 7, сформулировано следующим образом:

Даются 8 заголовков и 7 текстов. Под установлением соответствий подразумевается подбор подходящих заголовков к каждому тексту. Это задание проверяет умение понимать основную идею (содержание) каждого текста, отделять главное от второстепенного, игнорировать избыточную информацию и незнакомые слова, не мешающие пониманию основного содержания.

Для успешного выполнения задания предлагаем вам следующим алгоритм действия:

1. Прочитайте заголовки (темы или краткие утверждения) и определите: что в них общего и чем они отличаются друг от друга: проблемой, отношением к проблеме и т.д.
2. В процессе ознакомления с заголовками целесообразно подчеркнуть в них ключевые слова или сделать другие пометки.
3. Глядя на заголовки, попытайтесь предугадать основное содержание текста, подобрать слова/словосочетания, которые необходимы для раскрытия данной темы/ проблемы/ ситуации.
4. Просмотрите каждый текст, игнорируя незнакомые слова и выражения, с тем, чтобы понять его основную идею.
5. По мере прочтения каждого текста отмечайте все возможные варианты ответа рядом с текстом, помечая заголовок в списке как использованный. (Не забывайте, что на бланках КИМ разрешается делать любые пометки.)
6. При возникших затруднениях с определением соответствия текста заголовку (теме, краткому утверждению), прочтите текст еще раз и попытайтесь сформулировать его основную идею самостоятельно, затем выберите наиболее близкий вариант по содержанию из оставшихся и отметьте его.
7. Если текст кажется совсем непонятным, отложите его. Подобрав заголовки к другим текстам и действуя методом исключения, у вас останется два заголовка и один текст — шансов даже просто угадать уже гораздо больше.
8. Вернитесь к тем текстам, где изначально были выбраны несколько возможных соответствий.
9. Продумайте и обоснуйте самому себе выбор того или иного соответствия с опорой на текст.
10. Проверьте правильность других выбранных соответствий. Убедитесь, что вы не использовали одну и ту же букву дважды.
11. Удостоверьтесь, что оставшийся заголовок не подходит ни к одному тексту.
12. Запишите окончательный вариант ответа в таблицу после задания.

Давайте проверим, насколько наша тактика работает на примере. Даны следующие заголовки для соотнесения с текстами: 

 Выделяем ключевые слова в каждом из них:

Читаем тексты и определяем основную мысль каждого из них. Выделяем ключевые слова и выражения в заголовках. Соотносим заголовки с текстами, находя синонимичные слова и фразы в тексте и заголовках:

A. Moscow has always been a multicultural city. If we look back at its history, we will see that there were several foreign communities living in Moscow on a permanent basis. We all know about German people inhabiting the banks of the Yauza river, where little Peter, the future tsar of all Russia, ran around, made friends and got his first ideas of learning about ships and fleets. But what do we know about the British community of Moscow? Did it even exist?

(Ответ 3: — multicultural city — 3. A truly international place)

B. The first ties between Russia and Britain were formed in the middle of the 16th century in the time of Ivan the Terrible. It was then that some wealthy British merchants founded the Muscovy Company which held a monopoly on trade between Britain and Russia until 1698. The building of its Moscow headquarters was granted to the company by the tsar in 1556 and can be still visited at 4, Varvarka Street, known to us now as The Old English Court.

(Ответ 8: — first ties — 8. The initial steps of commerce. Возможен также вариант 4 — 4.Textile business links. Оставляем оба до конца работы с текстом.)

С. Beginning from the time of Peter the Great, several talented British military men moved to Russia. Many of them served as army generals and navy admirals, defending Russian borders in different wars and battles. Among the most famous ones were Field Marshall James Bruce, Field Marshall Barclay de Tolly and Admiral Thomas Mackenzie, all of them of Scottish origin.

(Ответ 2 — defending Russian borders in different wars and battles — 2.Country’s brave defenders)

D. In the 18th century, British industrialists made themselves known in Russia. One of the most outstanding figures was Robert McGill, who lived in Moscow and served as an intermediary between Lancashire mill engineers and the Russian cotton industry, and built over 150 mills (cotton factories) in Russia. Robert McGill had a house in Spiridonovka Street and together with his wife Jane was a prominent member of the British community in Moscow.

(Ответ 6 — intermediary between Lancashire mill engineers and the Russian cotton industry — Textile business links, т.е. вариант уходит из текста В, поскольку в том тексте нет информации о текстиле, а в этом говорится о хлопке)

E. If you talk to Moscow concert musicians who were active between the 1960s and the 1990s, they will tell you of the fantastic acoustics of the “Melodiya” recording studio at 8, Voznesensky Lane, which they lovingly called ‘kirche’, mistakenly thinking it was a German church. This building, designed in the English neo-gothic architectural style, was in fact built in 1885 by Robert McGill and is St. Andrew’s Anglican Church, which was used as a recording studio in Soviet times.

(Ответ 7 — fantastic acoustics — 7. A nice-sounding building)

F. Another spectacular example of British architecture in Moscow is the old building of TsUM next to the Bolshoy and Maly theatres. Built in the early 1900s, it was back then the biggest department store in Moscow. It was owned by Scottish merchants Andrew Muir and Archie Mirrielees. Mayakovsky mentions Muir&Mirrielees in several of his poems, while Chekhov named his dogs after its two owners.

(Ответ 1 — department store — 1. A shop that inspired writers)

G. In 1887, two other cotton industrialists from Lancashire, Clement and Harry Charnock, moved to work at a cotton factory in Orekhovo-Zuevo, near Moscow. They were both great football fans and decided to introduce this game to the workers of the factory. This resulted in the first professional football team in Russia which after the Revolution became the core of Moscow Dynamo team.

(Ответ 5 — the first professional football team — 5. Birth of a popular sport)

Лишний заголовок — 7. Governesses of rich children. Действительно, нет ни одного текста с информацией о гувернантках и богатых детях.

Заносим варианты в таблицу:

Перейти в каталог продукции по английскому языку

2. Задание под номером 11 повышенного уровня, за которое дается максимальное количество баллов — 6, сформулировано следующим образом:

Предлагается текст (газетная или журнальная статья) с шестью пропусками, обозначенными буквами (A-F), и семь фрагментов предложений для заполнения пропусков, обозначенных цифрами (1-7). Один фрагмент предложения — лишний. Надо установить соответствие между частью текста и пропущенным фрагментом предложения. Это задание проверяет понимание структурно-смысловых связей текста.

Для правильного выполнения задания следует:

1. Просмотреть весь текст (без выделенных фрагментов), определить его тему и основное содержание, не обращая внимания на незнакомые слова и выражения.

Surviving in a Desert
A desert is defined as a place that gets less than 250 mm of rain each year. It differs sharply from the climate of a rain forest, A _________________. Arid desert lands cover about one third of the earth’s surface. Most deserts are covered with sand, B __________________. There are also usually a lot of rocky areas. This combination of sand and rock means that the soil is not very fertile. C ___________________, some living things are able to do well in this setting. Many plants have changed and developed in ways D ________________. These changes have become apparent in a number of ways. Some plants are able to grow very quickly E ______________. They turn green and produce flowers within just a few days. Other desert plants simply stop growing in very dry weather. They appear to be dead, but when the rain returns, they come back to life and begin growing again. Desert animals have also developed many characteristics that help them to survive in arid environment. Camels can go for a very long time without drinking. Other animals, such as snakes and rats, find cool places to sleep during the day and come out only at night. The extremely long ears of desert rabbits help them F ________________. Changes like these have allowed some animals and plants to grow and develop successfully in a very challenging ecological system: the desert. There are countless books in the world, and whoever you are, whatever you’re feeling, there is definitely a book out there, just waiting for you to discover it.

2. Обратить внимание на пропуски в тексте и попытаться предугадать пропущенную информацию. Например, в приведенном выше тексте, пропусках А и В вероятно изъяты придаточные определительные предложения, начинающиеся со слова which.

3. Прочитать выделенные фрагменты и определить структурные особенности начала фрагмента (с точки зрения использования грамматических и лексических норм сочетаемости), если таковые имеются.

1) which is often in the form of hills called sand dunes
2) whenever it rains
3) to find water as far as 25 metres away
4) which can receive up to 10,000 mm of rain annually
5) to better distribute their body heat and stay cool
6) even though the desert environment is very dry and hot
7) that help them to live in the desert

Например, информация пункта 6 обычно занимает место в начале предложения и выделяется запятой, в тексте этому требованию соответствует пропуск С. Фрагменты пунктов 1 и 4 грамматически подходят к буквам  А и В.

4. Читать текст последовательно, обращая особое внимание не только на пунктуацию, но и на последнее слово или выражение перед каждым пропуском. Если это слово или выражение требует определенного согласования или управления (использование герундия, инфинитива, предлога, союза и т.д.), надо искать соответствующее начало в выделенном фрагменте. Например, глагол help, предшествующий пропуску F, используется с инфинитивом, с которого начинаются фрагменты 3 и 5. 
5. Если одна и та же грамматическая структура используется в начале нескольких выделенных фрагментов, необходимо учитывать смысловое содержание предложения с пропуском, а также предыдущих и последующих предложений. В случае с пропуском F речь идет о пустынных зайцах, следовательно, пункт 5 больше подходит, так как в нем присутствует информация о теле, что больше подходит к животным.
6. По ходу чтения отмечать все возможные варианты соответствий, указывая нужные буквы рядом с цифрой пропуска или нужные цифры рядом с буквами, обозначающими выделенные фрагменты,
7. Делать нужные исправления по ходу чтения, исключая уже использованные варианты.
8. Если остаются пропуски с двумя вариантами соответствий, следует обратить внимание на грамматические и лексические нормы сочетаемости и содержание текста.
9. Проверить правильность других выбранных соответствий.
10. Прочитать полученный текст с точки зрения смысла, логики и грамматики.
11. Записать окончательный вариант ответа в таблицу после задания.
12. Определить, насколько лишний фрагмент не подходит ко всем пропускам.

Проверим правильность нашей тактики на тексте. Внимательно читаем все предложение в тексте, где содержится первый пропуск. Определяем, что не хватает придаточного предложения, начинающегося со слова which. Из вариантов 1 и 4 выбираем 4 пропуск, так как предыдущая информация посвящена количеству дождя.

It differs sharply from the climate of a rain forest, A _4 ( which can receive up to 10,000 mm of rain annually).

Пропуск В также сочетается с придаточным определительным предложением, но здесь речь идет о песке, т.е. подходит вариант 1

Most deserts are covered with sand, B _1 (which is often in the form of hills called sand dunes).

Как мы уже отмечали ранее, пропуску С соответствует пункт 6 по месту в предложении и наличию запятой. Проверяем по смыслу, подходит.

This combination of sand and rock means that the soil is not very fertile. C _6 (even though the desert environment is very dry and hot, some living things are able to do well in this setting).

В пропуске D также должно быть определительное придаточное предложение, отсутствие запятой дает нам возможность выбрать пункт 7, так как по правилу ограничительных и распространительных определительных предложений that используется только в  ограничительных предложений, не выделяемых запятой.

Many plants have changed and developed in ways D _7 (that help them to live in the desert).

В предложении с пропуском Е отсутствует информация либо об образе действия, либо о цели, либо о причине, т.е. подходит пункт 2.

Some plants are able to grow very quickly E _2 (whenever it rains).

Для пропуска F, как говорилось выше, соответствует пункт 5 по смыслу и с точки зрения грамматических связей.

The extremely long ears of desert rabbits help them F_5 (to better distribute their body heat and stay cool). 

Прочитываем восполненный текст, проверяем смысловые, логические и грамматические связи и заносим ответы в таблицу.

Ответ:    

Перейти в каталог продукции по английскому языку

3. Задание под номерами 12-18, за которое дается максимальное количество баллов — 7 (по 1 баллу за каждый правильный ответ), сформулировано следующим образом:

В третьем задании (А12-А18) части раздела чтения предлагаются семь тестовых заданий с четырьмя вариантами ответов (1-4), из которых только один является правильным. Как правило, это либо начало предложения, к которому предлагается четыре возможных варианта окончания, либо вопрос, к которому дается четыре варианта ответа. Это задание проверяет умение полностью понять содержание прочитанного, умение определять логические связи в предложении и между частями текста; умение делать выводы из прочитанного («читать между строк»), а также умение догадаться о значение слова (выражения) по контексту.

Чтобы правильно выполнить задание, рекомендуется:

1. Быстро прочитать весь текст, не углубляясь в подробности для понимания общего содержания и основных событий рассказа.
2. При выполнении каждого задания внимательно перечитывайте только ту часть, где должен быть ответ. Выполняйте задание последовательно. Помните, что последовательность тестовых вопросов связана с последовательностью развития сюжета текста.
3. Прочитайте первый вопрос, подчеркните ключевые слова и найдите тот фрагмент текста, где должен быть ответ. Этим фрагментом может быть одно слово, выражение, целое предложение или абзац.
4. Выберите правильный ответ, обязательно найдя и подчеркнув то место в тексте, которое подтверждает ответ.
5. Не пытайтесь найти точно такие же слова и выражения, которые содержатся в вопросе, в самом тексте. Вам нужно найти синонимичные способы выражения одной и той же мысли.
6. Если не получается определить правильный ответ, действуйте методом исключения.
7. Если не можете осознанно выбрать ни один из предложенных вариантов, не понимаете сути вопроса, выбирайте ответ интуитивно, не оставляйте задание без ответа.
8. Таким же образом работайте со всеми остальными вопросами.

Например, дан текст:

Doctor Who
Doctor Who is a British science-fiction TV series that follows the adventures of a time-traveling alien, called the Doctor, and his human companion, as they travel through time and space in a spaceship, called the TARDIS (Time and Relative Dimension in Space), and courageously save the world time and time again. Doctor Who first aired on BBC on 23 November, 1963 and was one of the first science-fiction stories to appear on screen: 3 years before Star Trek and 14 years before the Star Wars franchise. In 1989, due to falling popularity, the show was suspended. But 16 years later, in 2005, it was brought back to the screen with a whole new cast of actors and has been ongoing ever since. It is considered to be the longest running sci-fi show in the world, having celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2013. But how has Doctor Who managed to survive for this long? What sets it apart from other amazing shows that are now over? What makes Doctor Who really unique, is that it does not have to rely on any particular actor to continue. When the Doctor is close to death, he is able to start a biological process within himself, called regeneration, that changes every single cell in his body, while still leaving his mind intact. Essentially, he becomes a different person: new looks, new personality, new everything. But one thing that never changes is his genius, and his sense of humor. This means, that every four years or so, when the actors playing the Doctor decide to move on to different projects and leave the show, the producers can find a new actor to take on the iconic role. So far twelve actors have played the Doctor. Another reason the show has been running for so long is that there is no main storyline, it is very much episodic, each episode telling a story of a separate adventure. So as long as the writers of the show keep coming up with new planets for the Doctor and his companion to visit, and new alien villains for them to defeat, the show can continue forever. Doctor Who has an unbelievably huge fan base all over the world, so big in fact, that the 50th anniversary episode aired in 94 countries simultaneously, earning it a Guinness World Record. There is also a large amount of music, inspired by Doctor Who, and since the series’s renewal, a music genre called Trock (Time Lord Rock) has appeared. The most famous Trock band is Chameleon Circuit. They produce music exclusively about Doctor Who, and so far have released two albums. Soon after Doctor Who’s appearance in 1963, novels surrounding the series started to appear. The first ever novelization came out on 12 November, 1964, almost exactly a year after the first episode came out. Since then over 150 novelizations and 200 spin-off books have been published, including some written by Neil Gaiman. Doctor Who has been an important part of popular culture for over half a century now. The show is limitless, filled with possibility: you can go to Victorian London, or to Pompeii, or to the 51st century. It can be any genre: comedy, horror, fantasy, drama, sometimes all of them at the same time. It’s clever, and funny, and sad, and makes you think. The plots are well written, and sometimes you feel like you’re twisting your brain into a knot, trying to figure out the paradoxes. But most importantly it’s kind-hearted and beautiful. No doubt Doctor Who will remain a fan-favorite for many years to come.

12. The first Star Wars movie came out in

1) 1963
2) 1966
3) 1977
4) 1989.

Обращаем внимание, что вопрос не о сериале “Doctor Who”, а о фильме “Star Wars”, находим во 2 абзаце информацию, производим необходимые расчеты и получаем год — 1977, т.е. правильный ответ — 3.

13. Which of the following is NOT the reason why Doctor Who has been around for so long?

1) It is easy to change the actors playing the main character
2) The TV series is extremely popular all over the world
3) Separate episodes and seasons are not connected by plot
4) The writers of Doctor Who keep writing new stories.

Первые три пункта представлены в тексте как причины долгой жизни сериала, последний, четвертый, вариант является не причиной, а следствием, результатом. Т.е. выбираем правильный ответ — 4.

14. Which of the following words does NOT apply to the Doctor as a character?

1) clever
2) human
3) funny
4) brave

При описании персонажа находим в тексте характеристики: genius, sense of humor, которые синонимичны словам 1) clever, 3) funny. А то, что главный герой борется со злодеями, свидетельствует о том, что он смелый — 4) brave. Остается правильный ответ — 2) human.

15. Which word is closest in meaning to the word ‘iconic’ at the end of the third paragraph?

1) difficult
2) famous
3) religious
4) desirable

Слово ‘iconic’ имеет смысл культовый, иконный. В соответствии с общим смыслом абзаца, речь не идет о религиозном смысле слова, остается культовый, или знаменитый, поэтому ответ — 2) famous.

16. Which of the following statements is true?

1) Trock is a music genre that first appeared in the middle of the 1960s
2) Chameleon Circuit rock group writes music for the Doctor Who TV series
3) Both albums of Chameleon Circuit are centered around Doctor Who
4) The music genre that is used in the Doctor Who TV series is called Trock.

В тексте дана информация о группе “Chameleon Circuit”.

They produce music exclusively about Doctor Who, and so far have released two albums.

Правильный ответ — 3.

Проверяем, почему не подходят остальные варианты. В первом — неправильная дата. Во втором сказано, что музыка пишется ДЛЯ сериала, а в тексте говорится о том, что она пишется О главном герое. В четвертом пункте говорится, что в сериале используется жанр музыки Trock, а, согласно тексту, этот жанр возник под влиянием самого сериала, то есть нарушена причинно-следственная связь.

17. In the 6th paragraph the author implies that

1) the Doctor Who TV series inspired writers to create novels about the Doctor
2) every Doctor Who episode later gets published in the format of a book
3) Neil Gaiman has written some episodes for the Doctor Who TV series
4) Doctor Who is based on more than 150 books by different authors.

Слова surrounding, spin-off имеющие значение сопутствующий, дополнительный, побочный, а также даты  говорят о книгах, появившихся после сериала, поэтому правильный ответ – 1.

Ответ 2 не подходит, поскольку в тексте нет информации о том, что каждая серия потом описывается в книге. Ответ 3 не подходит, так как из текста следует, что он не писал сценарий для сериала, а его книги были написаны по мотивам сериала. Ответ 4 неверен, так как цифра 150 относится к количеству книг, написанных по мотивам сериала. Это, так называемые, distractors (отвлекающие факторы).

18. Which choice is closest in meaning to the phrase ‘you feel like you are twisting your brain into a knot’ in the last paragraph?

1) You are trying very hard to solve a problem
2) You come to a dead-end while solving a problem
3) You give your brain some good training
4) You are using intuition rather than your brain.

Правильный ответ — 1, так как во втором пункте “come to a dead-end” имеет отрицательную коннотацию — зайти в тупик, третий говорит о тренировке ума, а не о решении проблемы, четвертый пункт ставит во главу угла интуицию, а не мыслительную деятельность.